@article{EwaldGlotzbachSchoonGerdesetal.2014, author = {Ewald, Heike and Glotzbach-Schoon, Evelyn and Gerdes, Antje B. M. and Andreatta, Marta and M{\"u}ller, Mathias and M{\"u}hlberger, Andreas and Pauli, Paul}, title = {Delay and trace fear conditioning in a complex virtual learning environment - neural substrates of extinction}, series = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience}, volume = {8}, journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience}, number = {323}, issn = {1662-5161}, doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2014.00323}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-116230}, year = {2014}, abstract = {Extinction is an important mechanism to inhibit initially acquired fear responses. There is growing evidence that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) inhibits the amygdala and therefore plays an important role in the extinction of delay fear conditioning. To our knowledge, there is no evidence on the role of the prefrontal cortex in the extinction of trace conditioning up to now. Thus, we compared brain structures involved in the extinction of human delay and trace fear conditioning in a between-subjects-design in an fMRI study. Participants were passively guided through a virtual environment during learning and extinction of conditioned fear. Two different lights served as conditioned stimuli (CS); as unconditioned stimulus (US) a mildly painful electric stimulus was delivered. In the delay conditioning group (DCG) the US was administered with offset of one light (CS+), whereas in the trace conditioning group (TCG) the US was presented 4s after CS+ offset. Both groups showed insular and striatal activation during early extinction, but differed in their prefrontal activation. The vmPFC was mainly activated in the DCG, whereas the TCG showed activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) during extinction. These results point to different extinction processes in delay and trace conditioning. VmPFC activation during extinction of delay conditioning might reflect the inhibition of the fear response. In contrast, dlPFC activation during extinction of trace conditioning may reflect modulation of working memory processes which are involved in bridging the trace interval and hold information in short term memory.}, language = {en} } @article{DiemerAlpersPeperkornetal.2015, author = {Diemer, Julia and Alpers, Georg W. and Peperkorn, Henrik M. and Shiban, Youssef and M{\"u}hlberger, Andreas}, title = {The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality}, series = {Frontiers in Psychology}, volume = {6}, journal = {Frontiers in Psychology}, number = {26}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00026}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-144200}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Virtual reality (VR) has made its way into mainstream psychological research in the last two decades. This technology, with its unique ability to simulate complex, real situations and contexts, offers researchers unprecedented opportunities to investigate human behavior in well controlled designs in the laboratory. One important application of VR is the investigation of pathological processes in mental disorders, especially anxiety disorders. Research on the processes underlying threat perception, fear, and exposure therapy has shed light on more general aspects of the relation between perception and emotion. Being by its nature virtual, i.e., simulation of reality, VR strongly relies on the adequate selection of specific perceptual cues to activate emotions. Emotional experiences in turn are related to presence, another important concept in VR, which describes the user's sense of being in a VR environment. This paper summarizes current research into perception of fear cues, emotion, and presence, aiming at the identification of the most relevant aspects of emotional experience in VR and their mutual relations. A special focus lies on a series of recent experiments designed to test the relative contribution of perception and conceptual information on fear in VR. This strand of research capitalizes on the dissociation between perception (bottom up input) and conceptual information (top-down input) that is possible in VR. Further, we review the factors that have so far been recognized to influence presence, with emotions (e.g., fear) being the most relevant in the context of clinical psychology. Recent research has highlighted the mutual influence of presence and fear in VR, but has also traced the limits of our current understanding of this relationship. In this paper, the crucial role of perception on eliciting emotional reactions is highlighted, and the role of arousal as a basic dimension of emotional experience is discussed. An interoceptive attribution model of presence is suggested as a first step toward an integrative framework for emotion research in VR. Gaps in the current literature and future directions are outlined.}, language = {en} } @article{PeperkornDiemerAlpersetal.2016, author = {Peperkorn, Henrik M. and Diemer, Julia E. and Alpers, Georg W. and M{\"u}hlberger, Andreas}, title = {Representation of Patients' Hand Modulates Fear Reactions of Patients with Spider Phobia in Virtual Reality}, series = {frontiers in Psychology}, volume = {7}, journal = {frontiers in Psychology}, number = {268}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00268}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-165307}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Embodiment (i.e., the involvement of a bodily representation) is thought to be relevant in emotional experiences. Virtual reality (VR) is a capable means of activating phobic fear in patients. The representation of the patient's body (e.g., the right hand) in VR enhances immersion and increases presence, but its effect on phobic fear is still unknown. We analyzed the influence of the presentation of the participant's hand in VR on presence and fear responses in 32 women with spider phobia and 32 matched controls. Participants sat in front of a table with an acrylic glass container within reaching distance. During the experiment this setup was concealed by a head-mounted display (HMD). The VR scenario presented via HMD showed the same setup, i.e., a table with an acrylic glass container. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups. In one group, fear responses were triggered by fear-relevant visual input in VR (virtual spider in the virtual acrylic glass container), while information about a real but unseen neutral control animal (living snake in the acrylic glass container) was given. The second group received fear-relevant information of the real but unseen situation (living spider in the acrylic glass container), but visual input was kept neutral VR (virtual snake in the virtual acrylic glass container). Participants were instructed to touch the acrylic glass container with their right hand in 20 consecutive trials. Visibility of the hand was varied randomly in a within-subjects design. We found for all participants that visibility of the participant's hand increased presence independently of the fear trigger. However, in patients, the influence of the virtual hand on fear depended on the fear trigger. When fear was triggered perceptually, i.e., by a virtual spider, the virtual hand increased fear. When fear was triggered by information about a real spider, the virtual hand had no effect on fear. Our results shed light on the significance of different fear triggers (visual, conceptual) in interaction with body representations.}, language = {en} } @article{vonMammenWagnerKnoteetal.2017, author = {von Mammen, Sebastian Albrecht and Wagner, Daniel and Knote, Andreas and Taskin, Umut}, title = {Interactive simulations of biohybrid systems}, series = {Frontiers in Robotics and AI}, volume = {4}, journal = {Frontiers in Robotics and AI}, issn = {2296-9144}, doi = {10.3389/frobt.2017.00050}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-195755}, year = {2017}, abstract = {In this article, we present approaches to interactive simulations of biohybrid systems. These simulations are comprised of two major computational components: (1) agent-based developmental models that retrace organismal growth and unfolding of technical scaffoldings and (2) interfaces to explore these models interactively. Simulations of biohybrid systems allow us to fast forward and experience their evolution over time based on our design decisions involving the choice, configuration and initial states of the deployed biological and robotic actors as well as their interplay with the environment. We briefly introduce the concept of swarm grammars, an agent-based extension of L-systems for retracing growth processes and structural artifacts. Next, we review an early augmented reality prototype for designing and projecting biohybrid system simulations into real space. In addition to models that retrace plant behaviors, we specify swarm grammar agents to braid structures in a self-organizing manner. Based on this model, both robotic and plant-driven braiding processes can be experienced and explored in virtual worlds. We present an according user interface for use in virtual reality. As we present interactive models concerning rather diverse description levels, we only ensured their principal capacity for interaction but did not consider efficiency analyzes beyond prototypic operation. We conclude this article with an outlook on future works on melding reality and virtuality to drive the design and deployment of biohybrid systems.}, language = {en} } @article{GromerMadeiraGastetal.2018, author = {Gromer, Daniel and Madeira, Oct{\´a}via and Gast, Philipp and Nehfischer, Markus and Jost, Michael and M{\"u}ller, Mathias and M{\"u}hlberger, Andreas and Pauli, Paul}, title = {Height Simulation in a Virtual Reality CAVE System: Validity of Fear Responses and Effects of an Immersion Manipulation}, series = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience}, volume = {12}, journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience}, number = {372}, issn = {1662-5161}, doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2018.00372}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-196113}, year = {2018}, abstract = {Acrophobia is characterized by intense fear in height situations. Virtual reality (VR) can be used to trigger such phobic fear, and VR exposure therapy (VRET) has proven effective for treatment of phobias, although it remains important to further elucidate factors that modulate and mediate the fear responses triggered in VR. The present study assessed verbal and behavioral fear responses triggered by a height simulation in a 5-sided cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) with visual and acoustic simulation and further investigated how fear responses are modulated by immersion, i.e., an additional wind simulation, and presence, i.e., the feeling to be present in the VE. Results revealed a high validity for the CAVE and VE in provoking height related self-reported fear and avoidance behavior in accordance with a trait measure of acrophobic fear. Increasing immersion significantly increased fear responses in high height anxious (HHA) participants, but did not affect presence. Nevertheless, presence was found to be an important predictor of fear responses. We conclude that a CAVE system can be used to elicit valid fear responses, which might be further enhanced by immersion manipulations independent from presence. These results may help to improve VRET efficacy and its transfer to real situations.}, language = {en} } @article{DuekingHolmbergSperlich2018, author = {D{\"u}king, Peter and Holmberg, Hans-Christer and Sperlich, Billy}, title = {The potential usefulness of virtual reality systems for athletes: a short SWOT analysis}, series = {Frontiers in Physiology}, volume = {9}, journal = {Frontiers in Physiology}, number = {128}, doi = {10.3389/fphys.2018.00128}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-176178}, year = {2018}, abstract = {No abstract available.}, language = {en} } @article{NeuederAndreattaPauli2019, author = {Neueder, Dorothea and Andreatta, Marta and Pauli, Paul}, title = {Contextual fear conditioning and fear generalization in individuals with panic attacks}, series = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience}, volume = {13}, journal = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience}, doi = {10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00152}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-201318}, pages = {152}, year = {2019}, abstract = {Context conditioning is characterized by unpredictable threat and its generalization may constitute risk factors for panic disorder (PD). Therefore, we examined differences between individuals with panic attacks (PA; N = 21) and healthy controls (HC, N = 22) in contextual learning and context generalization using a virtual reality (VR) paradigm. Successful context conditioning was indicated in both groups by higher arousal, anxiety and contingency ratings, and increased startle responses and skin conductance levels (SCLs) in an anxiety context (CTX+) where an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US) occurred unpredictably vs. a safety context (CTX-). PA compared to HC exhibited increased differential responding to CTX+ vs. CTX- and overgeneralization of contextual anxiety on an evaluative verbal level, but not on a physiological level. We conclude that increased contextual conditioning and contextual generalization may constitute risk factors for PD or agoraphobia contributing to the characteristic avoidance of anxiety contexts and withdrawal to safety contexts and that evaluative cognitive process may play a major role.}, language = {en} } @article{LangePauli2019, author = {Lange, Bastian and Pauli, Paul}, title = {Social anxiety changes the way we move—A social approach-avoidance task in a virtual reality CAVE system}, series = {PLoS ONE}, volume = {14}, journal = {PLoS ONE}, number = {12}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0226805}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-200528}, pages = {e0226805}, year = {2019}, abstract = {Investigating approach-avoidance behavior regarding affective stimuli is important in broadening the understanding of one of the most common psychiatric disorders, social anxiety disorder. Many studies in this field rely on approach-avoidance tasks, which mainly assess hand movements, or interpersonal distance measures, which return inconsistent results and lack ecological validity. Therefore, the present study introduces a virtual reality task, looking at avoidance parameters (movement time and speed, distance to social stimulus, gaze behavior) during whole-body movements. These complex movements represent the most ecologically valid form of approach and avoidance behavior. These are at the core of complex and natural social behavior. With this newly developed task, the present study examined whether high socially anxious individuals differ in avoidance behavior when bypassing another person, here virtual humans with neutral and angry facial expressions. Results showed that virtual bystanders displaying angry facial expressions were generally avoided by all participants. In addition, high socially anxious participants generally displayed enhanced avoidance behavior towards virtual people, but no specifically exaggerated avoidance behavior towards virtual people with a negative facial expression. The newly developed virtual reality task proved to be an ecological valid tool for research on complex approach-avoidance behavior in social situations. The first results revealed that whole body approach-avoidance behavior relative to passive bystanders is modulated by their emotional facial expressions and that social anxiety generally amplifies such avoidance.}, language = {en} } @article{GromerReinkeChristneretal.2019, author = {Gromer, Daniel and Reinke, Max and Christner, Isabel and Pauli, Paul}, title = {Causal interactive links between presence and fear in virtual reality height exposure}, series = {Frontiers in Psychology}, volume = {10}, journal = {Frontiers in Psychology}, number = {141}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00141}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-201855}, year = {2019}, abstract = {Virtual reality plays an increasingly important role in research and therapy of pathological fear. However, the mechanisms how virtual environments elicit and modify fear responses are not yet fully understood. Presence, a psychological construct referring to the 'sense of being there' in a virtual environment, is widely assumed to crucially influence the strength of the elicited fear responses, however, causality is still under debate. The present study is the first that experimentally manipulated both variables to unravel the causal link between presence and fear responses. Height-fearful participants (N = 49) were immersed into a virtual height situation and a neutral control situation (fear manipulation) with either high versus low sensory realism (presence manipulation). Ratings of presence and verbal and physiological (skin conductance, heart rate) fear responses were recorded. Results revealed an effect of the fear manipulation on presence, i.e., higher presence ratings in the height situation compared to the neutral control situation, but no effect of the presence manipulation on fear responses. However, the presence ratings during the first exposure to the high quality neutral environment were predictive of later fear responses in the height situation. Our findings support the hypothesis that experiencing emotional responses in a virtual environment leads to a stronger feeling of being there, i.e., increase presence. In contrast, the effects of presence on fear seem to be more complex: on the one hand, increased presence due to the quality of the virtual environment did not influence fear; on the other hand, presence variability that likely stemmed from differences in user characteristics did predict later fear responses. These findings underscore the importance of user characteristics in the emergence of presence.}, language = {en} } @article{StauffertNieblingLatoschik2020, author = {Stauffert, Jan-Philipp and Niebling, Florian and Latoschik, Marc Erich}, title = {Latency and Cybersickness: Impact, Causes, and Measures. A Review}, series = {Frontiers in Virtual Reality}, volume = {1}, journal = {Frontiers in Virtual Reality}, doi = {10.3389/frvir.2020.582204}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-236133}, year = {2020}, abstract = {Latency is a key characteristic inherent to any computer system. Motion-to-Photon (MTP) latency describes the time between the movement of a tracked object and its corresponding movement rendered and depicted by computer-generated images on a graphical output screen. High MTP latency can cause a loss of performance in interactive graphics applications and, even worse, can provoke cybersickness in Virtual Reality (VR) applications. Here, cybersickness can degrade VR experiences or may render the experiences completely unusable. It can confound research findings of an otherwise sound experiment. Latency as a contributing factor to cybersickness needs to be properly understood. Its effects need to be analyzed, its sources need to be identified, good measurement methods need to be developed, and proper counter measures need to be developed in order to reduce potentially harmful impacts of latency on the usability and safety of VR systems. Research shows that latency can exhibit intricate timing patterns with various spiking and periodic behavior. These timing behaviors may vary, yet most are found to provoke cybersickness. Overall, latency can differ drastically between different systems interfering with generalization of measurement results. This review article describes the causes and effects of latency with regard to cybersickness. We report on different existing approaches to measure and report latency. Hence, the article provides readers with the knowledge to understand and report latency for their own applications, evaluations, and experiments. It should also help to measure, identify, and finally control and counteract latency and hence gain confidence into the soundness of empirical data collected by VR exposures. Low latency increases the usability and safety of VR systems.}, language = {en} }