@phdthesis{Marten2008,
  author    = {Marten, Holger},
  title     = {Rolle und Regulation von Anionenkan{\"a}len w{\"a}hrend der Stomabewegung als Reaktion auf Licht, CO2 und Wasserstress},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-29349},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2008},
  abstract  = {Die Stomata in der Epidermis von Pflanzen sind Poren, die den Gasaustausch mit der Atmosph{\"a}re regulieren. Die {\"O}ffnungsweite der Stomata kann ver{\"a}ndert werden, was eine Optimierung der CO2 Aufnahme f{\"u}r die Photosynthese erm{\"o}glicht und gleichzeitig den Wasserverlust durch Transpiration minimiert. Um diese Funktion zu erf{\"u}llen, k{\"o}nnen Stomata verschiedene Stimuli wie Wasserstress (durch Abscisins{\"a}ure), Licht und CO2 wahrnehmen. Die oben genannten Reize f{\"u}hren dann zu einer Aufnahme oder Abgabe von osmotisch aktiven Substanzen in zwei Schließzellen, welche die Stoma{\"o}ffnung kontrollieren. Die Rezeptoren zur Wahrnehmung dieser Stimuli, die intrazellul{\"a}ren Signalwege und die beteiligten Ionentransportproteine in den Schließzellen sind nur l{\"u}ckenhaft bekannt. In dieser Arbeit lag ein Hauptaugenmerk auf der Rolle von Anionenkan{\"a}len der Plasmamembran bei Stomabewegungen, sowie auf den Signalwegen welche diese Kan{\"a}le steuern. Die Aktivit{\"a}t der Anionenkan{\"a}le wurde mit der DEVC (Double Electrode Voltage Clamp) Einstich-Methode in Schließzellen in der intakten Pflanze gemessen, kombiniert mit Calcium Imaging durch den Ca2+ Indikator Farbstoff FURA2. Stomaschlussreaktionen werden durch Abscisins{\"a}ure (ABA), CO2 und Dunkelheit induziert und bei allen drei Stimuli konnten wir in Nicotiana tabacum eine Aktivierung von Anionenkan{\"a}len beobachten. Das f{\"u}hrt zu Anionenefflux aus den Schließzellen und einer Depolarisation der Plasmamembran, was wiederum Kalium-Efflux-Kan{\"a}le spannungsabh{\"a}ngig aktiviert. Der resultierende Verlust osmotisch aktiver Teilchen f{\"u}hrt dann zu Turgorabnahme der Schließzellen und Stomaschluss. Das zeitliche Muster der Anionenkanalaktivit{\"a}t bei dem Stomaschluss, ausgel{\"o}st durch CO2, Dunkelheit und ABA war bei allen Reizen {\"a}hnlich. Es zeigte sich eine charakteristische transiente starke und darauf folgende schw{\"a}chere Anionenkanalaktivit{\"a}t. Dieses konservierte Muster l{\"a}sst {\"U}berschneidungen bei der Signaltransduktion der verschiedenen Stimuli vermuten. Die gesteigerte Aktivit{\"a}t der Anionenkan{\"a}le w{\"a}hrend der Reaktion auf ABA und Dunkelheit wurde in ungef{\"a}hr der H{\"a}lfte der Antworten von einem Anstieg der zytosolischen Ca2+ Konzentration begleitet. Bei beiden Stimuli scheinen somit Ca2+ abh{\"a}ngig und unabh{\"a}ngig Signale intrazellul{\"a}r weitergeleitet zu werden. Allerdings war der Effekt der Ca2+ Signale auf die Aktivit{\"a}t der Anionenkan{\"a}le bei den beiden Stimuli unterschiedlich. Eine zytosolisch erh{\"o}hte Ca2+ Konzentration konnte bei Antworten auf ABA nicht mit einer erh{\"o}hten Anionenkanalaktivit{\"a}t in Verbindung gebracht werden, bei Dunkelheit hingegen wurde die Aktivit{\"a}t der Anionenkan{\"a}le in Anwesenheit von Ca2+ gesteigert. Die wichtige Rolle von Anionenkan{\"a}len beim Stomaschluss l{\"a}sst vermuten, dass ihre Deaktivierung eine Vorraussetzung f{\"u}r eine Stoma{\"o}ffnung ist. Blaulicht f{\"u}hrt bei niedrigen Photonen-Fluss Raten zu Stoma{\"o}ffnung und sollte daher Anionenkan{\"a}le inhibieren. {\"U}bereinstimmend damit konnten wir tats{\"a}chlich zeigen, dass Blaulicht in Schließzellen von Vicia faba und Arabidopsis thaliana Anionenkan{\"a}le deaktiviert. Diese Deaktivierung ist von den Phototropin-Blaulichtrezeptoren abh{\"a}ngig, da die Deaktivierung der Anionenkan{\"a}le in Arabidopsis thaliana phot1/phot2 Doppelmutanten nicht beobachtet werden konnte. Neben einer Blaulicht spezifischen Antwort {\"o}ffnen Stomata auch in Antwort auf photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung (PAR). Die PAR Wahrnehmung scheint zu einem wesentlichen Teil {\"u}ber Ver{\"a}nderungen der interzellul{\"a}ren CO2 Konzentration, ausgel{\"o}st durch die Photosyntheseaktivit{\"a}t des Mesophylls, stattzufinden (Roelfsema et al., 2002). In {\"U}bereinstimmung mit dieser Hypothese konnten wir in Schließzellen in Albino Blattarealen von Chlorophytum comosum und gebleichten Vicia faba keine Reaktion auf PAR beobachten, obwohl Schließzellen von Chlorophytum comosum in Albino Bereichen funktionierende Chloroplasten besitzen. Die Rolle von CO2 bei der PAR Antwort haben wir des Weiteren in NtMPK4 antisense Pflanzen untersucht. Stomata von NtMPK4 antisense Pflanzen haben nicht auf {\"A}nderungen in der atmosph{\"a}rischen CO2 Konzentration reagiert und zeigten eine stark reduzierte Antwort auf PAR. Diese Ergebnisse best{\"a}tigen die wichtige Rolle der intrazellul{\"a}ren CO2 Konzentration bei der PAR Antwort, sie zeigen aber auch, dass es anscheinend zus{\"a}tzlich zu CO2 noch ein weiteres PAR abh{\"a}ngiges Signal f{\"u}r Stoma{\"o}ffnung gibt.},
  subject      = {Elektrophysiologie},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Levchenko2009,
  author    = {Levchenko, Victor},
  title     = {Studies of CA 2+ -signaling and CL-conductance changes in response to abscisic acid, voltage changes and cold, in the plasma membrane of guard cells},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-45309},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Land plants must control the transpiration water stream and balance it with carbon dioxide uptake for optimal photosynthesis. A highly specialized type of plant cell called guard cells have evolutionary appeared which are suited for this complicated purpose. Guard cells are located by pairs on aerated plant surface and form stomata - structural units, which represent highly regulated "watergate" (Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2005). Guard cells sense many environmental and internal plant-derived stimuli and by changing degree of their swelling tightly regulate diffusion of water vapor and other gases. Cell processes taking place in stomata during their movements had been a subject of intensive investigation for more than three decades (Schroeder et al., 2001; Assmann and Shimazaki, 1999). With use of electrophysiological technique the basic processes underlying stomatal movements were described (Thiel et al., 1992; Dietrich et. al., 2001; Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2005). Another set of questions arised between plant biologists is how the signals affecting stomatal aperture are transduced in guard cells starting from perception by receptor structures and ending on the osmodynamic motor components. Introduction of fluorescent microspectroscopy technique allowed to characterize some Ca2+ and H+-based signaling events, taking place in the cytoplasm during stomata function. Most of the processes, taking place in stomata were characterized in guard cell preparations, such as strips of isolated leaf epidermis or guard cell protoplasts, - cells with enzymaticaly digested cell walls. Some experimental observations although point that reactions of guard cells located in their natural environment, leaves of intact plants can differ from those could be registered in preparations. These deviations might be explained by the modulation of guard cell function by apoplastic factors originating from surrounding tissues like mesophyll or leaf epidermis (Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2002). On the other hand registration of physiological responses in prepared tissues may also contain possible artifacts, related to the preparation procedures. The aim of the experimental work presented here was to investigate the cell signaling events, taking place in guard cells upon plant stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and some other stimuli action. Abscisic acid is a compound that synthesized in plant roots upon drought and closes stomata in the leaf to prevent the plant organism from excessive water loss. Previous studies on guard cell of isolated epidermis and guard cell protoplasts showed, that ABA induces stomatal closure via activation of plasma membrane anion channels (Grabov et al., 1997; Pei et al, 1997). Anion channels are known to be activated by elevated 2 concentrations of cytoplasmic Ca2+ [Ca2+]cyt (Schroeder and Hagiwara, 1989; Hedrich et al., 1990). Application of Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent probes revealed [Ca2+]cyt increases in guard cells upon ABA action (McAinsh et al., 1990). This observation led to suggestion that [Ca2+]cyt directly participate in the transduction of ABA signal in guard cells. Although no direct evidences for co-occurrence of [Ca2+]cyt rises and following activation of anion channels upon ABA action was not presented until yet. Results of experimental work performed on intact Vicia faba, Commelina communis and Nicotiana plumbagnifolia plants showed that guard cells of intact plant leaves respond with transient activation of plasma membrane anion channels upon perception of ABA. Kinetics of the response is highly reproducible and seemed to be conserved between species. Although despite clear generation of anion current transients, no [Ca2+]cyt increases could be recorded with using fluorescent probe Fura-2 microinjected into the cytoplasm. Together with results of later study on intact Nicotiana tabacum guard cells, reported obligatory [Ca2+]cyt increases which were desynchronized with anion current transients (Marten et al., 2007b) this, may indicate that [Ca2+]cyt increases are not necessary component of ABA signal transduction pathway. Together with absence of the effect of cytoplasm-delivered Ca2+- mobilizing agents IP3, IP6 and NAADP on anion currents these data may suppose that role of [Ca2+]cyt in ABA signaling must be reassessed. Further interest represented characterization of [Ca2+]cyt signaling and homeostasis in intact guard cells comparing with those in prepared cells. Experiments revealed strong deviations in [Ca2+]cyt behavior between different measuring systems. While guard cells of intact plants were able to strictly maintain [Ca2+]cyt level upon experimental shifting of [Ca2+]cyt level in either direction of elevation or decrease, cells of isolated epidermis showed complete absence of such ability. Guard cell protoplasts showed even weaker [Ca2+]cyt regulation ability and were capable of low physiological [Ca2+]cyt levels maintaining only at depolarized membrane potentials. Apart to these differences, prepared guard cells showed also for-time less activation of anion currents by experimentally imposed [Ca2+]cyt increases. These data strongly suggest that registered in guard cell preparations [Ca2+]cyt signals may contain significant part of artifacts and must be carefully used for the building of models of guard cells signaling. Further experimental investigations are strongly required for understanding guard cell functioning, especially with relation of vacuoles participation. The experimental work was done by the author in the period from october 2001 until november 2004 under supervision of Professor Dr. Rainer Hedrich in laboratory of molecular plant physiology and biophysics at Julius-Maximillians University of W{\"u}rzburg, W{\"u}rz3 burg, Federal Republic of Germany. Scientific coordinator of the Ph. D. project is Dr. Max Robert Gustaaf Roelfsema, University of W{\"u}rzburg. Most of experimental results, presented here (chapter III) are also published elsewhere (Roelfsema et al., 2004; Langer et al., 2004; Levchenko et al., 2005, 2008). Chapter I intend to shortly introduce the reader into the field of guard cell research and point out the current level of understanding regarding this branch of plant research. Special attention is given to description of guard cell ion channels, their function and regulation, including the mechanisms of Ca2+-, H+- and phosphorylation-based signaling. This section is preceded by a short history of guard cell research and explains the actuality of presented work. In chapter II experimental techniques, methods and data processing approaches, used in the presented work are described. Technique used for electrophysiological registrations on intact plant leaves were used before and described in more details by Roelfsema et al. (2001). Fluorescent microspectroscopy technique was for the first time applied to intact plant leaves in this work and described in more details including calibration of Fura-2 based measurements. Chapter III presents the major results of the experimental work. In chapter IV the experimental results are discussed and put into context with current knowledge of guard cell function knowledge. Finally, remarks on perspectives of guard cell signaling research are drawn.},
  subject      = {Schließzelle},
  language  = {en}
}