@phdthesis{Mitschke2023,
  author    = {Mitschke, Vanessa},
  title     = {Facing Enemies. Modulation of Revenge Interactions based on Opponent State Indicators of Suffering},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-29938},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-299389},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Research on revenge often treats vengeful acts as singular one-way experiences, an approach which fails to account for the social nature and functions of revenge. This dissertation aims to integrate emotional punishment reactions into dynamic revenge sequences to investigate the affective and cognitive consequences of revenge within a social interaction. Exacting revenge can evoke intense affective consequences, from feelings of guilt to the genuine enjoyment of the suffering of others. In Chapter 2, affective responses towards suffering opponents and the regulation of aggression based on the appraisal of distinct suffering indicators were investigated. Results indicate that the observation of opponent pain evokes positive affect (measured via facial muscle contractions during the observation), which is followed by a downregulation of subsequent punishment. Both, positive affective reactions and the downregulation of punishment, were only observed following pain and not sadness expressions. Empathic distress, indexed by negative affective reactions, was only present following the observation of pain in non-provoking opponents. Showcasing the modulation of empathy related processes due to provocation and competition. In Chapter 3, a significant escalation of punishment, when being confronted with Schadenfreude, was observed. Results are interpreted as supporting the assumption that opponent monitoring processes inform subsequent action selection. The observation of opponent smiles led to imitation behavior (facial mimicry), which was partially attenuated due to previous provocation. The different functions of smile mimicry in the context of the aggressive competitive setting are discussed as containing simulation aspects (to aid in opponent understanding) and as a potential mirroring of dominance gestures, to avoid submission. In an additional series of studies, which are presented in Chapter 4, changes in memory of opponent faces following vengeful encounters were measured. Based on provocation, and punishment outcomes (pain \& anger), face memory was distorted, resulting in more positive representations of opponents that expressed pain. These results are discussed as evidence of the impact of outcome appraisals in the formation of opponent representations and are theorized to aid empathy avoidance in future interactions. The comparison of desired and observed opponent states, is theorized to result in appraisals of the punishment outcomes, which evoke affective states, inform the action selection of subsequent punishments, and are integrated into the representation of the opponent in memory. Overall, the results indicate that suffering cues that are congruent with the chosen punishment action are appraised as positive, evoking an increase in positive affect. The emergence of positive affect during the observation of successful aggressive actions supports recent theories about the chronification of aggressive behavior based on reinforcement learning. To allow positive affect to emerge, affective empathic responses, such as distress, are theorized to be suppressed to facilitate the goal attainment process. The suffering of the opponent constitutes the proximate goal during revenge taking, which highlights the importance of a theoretical differentiation of proximate and ultimate goals in revenge to allow for a deeper understanding of the underlying motives of complex revenge behavior.},
  subject      = {Aggression},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Likowski2011,
  author    = {Likowski, Katja U.},
  title     = {Facial mimicry, valence evaluation or emotional reaction? Mechanisms underlying the modulation of congruent and incongruent facial reactions to emotional facial expressions},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-65013},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {Humans have the tendency to react with congruent facial expressions when looking at an emotional face. Interestingly, recent studies revealed that several situational moderators can modulate strength and direction of these reactions. In current literature, congruent facial reactions to emotional facial expressions are usually described in terms of "facial mimicry" and interpreted as imitative behavior. Thereby, facial mimicry is understood as a process of pure motor resonance resulting from overlapping representations for the perception and the execution of a certain behavior. Motor mimicry, however, is not the only mechanism by which congruent facial reactions can occur. Numerous studies have shown that facial muscles also indicate valence evaluations. Furthermore, facial reactions are also determined by our current emotional state. These thoughts suggest that the modulation of congruent facial reactions to emotional expressions can be based on both motor and affective processes. However, a separation of motor and affective processes in facial reactions is hard to make. None of the published studies that tried that could show a clear involvement of one or the other process so far. Therefore, the aim of the present line of experiments is to shed light on the involvement of motor and affective processes in the modulation of congruent and incongruent facial reactions. Specifically, the experiments are designed to test the assumptions of a working model on mechanisms underlying the modulation of facial reactions and to examine the neuronal correlates involved in such modulations with a broad range of methods. Experiments 1 and 2 experimentally manipulate motor and affective mechanisms by using specific contexts. In the chose settings, motor process models and affective models of valence evaluations make competing predictions about resulting facial reactions. The results of Experiment 1 did not support the involvement of valence evaluations in the modulation of congruent and incongruent facial reactions to facial expressions. The results of Experiments 2a and 2b suggest that emotional reactions are the predominant determinant of facial reactions. Experiment 3 aimed at identifying the psychological mediators that indicate motor and affective mechanisms. Motor mechanisms are assessed via the psychological mediator empathy. Additionally, as a psychological mediator for clarifying the role of affective mechanisms subjective measures of the participants' current emotional state in response to the presented facial expressions were taken. Mediational analyses show that the modulation of congruent facial reactions can be explained by a decrease of state cognitive empathy. This suggests that motor processes mediate the effects of the context on congruent facial reactions. However, such a mechanism could not be observed for incongruent reactions. Instead, it was found that affective processes in terms of emotional reactions are involved in incongruent facial reactions. Additionally, the involvement of a third class of processes, namely strategic processes, was observed. Experiment 4 aimed at investigating whether a change in the strength of perception can explain the contextual modulation of facial reactions to facial expressions. According to motor process models the strength of perception is directly related to the strength of the spread of activation from perception to the execution of an action and thereby to the strength of the resulting mimicry behavior. The results suggest that motor mechanisms were involved in the modulation of congruent facial reactions by attitudes. Such an involvement of motor mechanisms could, however, not be observed for the modulation of incongruent reactions. In Experiment 5 the investigation of neuronal correlates shall be extended to the observation of involved brain areas via fMRI. The proposed brain areas depicting motor areas were prominent parts of the mirror neuron system. The regions of interest depicting areas involved in the affective processing were amygdala, insula, striatum. Furthermore, it could be shown that changes in the activity of parts of the MNS are related to the modulation of congruent facial reactions. Further on, results revealed the involvement of affective processes in the modulation of incongruent facial reactions. In sum, these results lead to a revised working model on the mechanisms underlying the modulation of facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. The results of the five experiments provide strong support for the involvement of motor mechanisms in congruent facial reactions. No evidence was found for the involvement of motor mechanisms in the occurrence or modulation of incongruent facial reactions. Furthermore, no evidence was found for the involvement of valence evaluations in the modulation of facial reactions. Instead, emotional reactions were found to be involved in the modulation of mainly incongruent facial reactions.},
  subject      = {Gef{\"u}hl},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Andreatta2010,
  author    = {Andreatta, Marta},
  title     = {Emotional reactions after event learning : a Rift between Implicit and Explicit Conditioned Valence in Humans Pain Relief Lerning},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-55715},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {Organismen vermeiden Gefahren und streben nach Belohnungen, um zu {\"u}berleben. Klassische Konditionierung ist ein einfaches Model, das erkl{\"a}rt, wie Tiere und Menschen Ereignisse in Verbindung bringen. Dieses Lernen erm{\"o}glicht Lebewesen Gefahr oder Belohnung direkt vorherzusehen. Normalerweise besteht das Konditionierungsparadigma aus der Pr{\"a}sentation eines neutralen Stimulus zusammen mit einem biologisch bedeutsamen Event (der unkonditionierte Stimulus - US). Aufgrund dieser Assoziation erwirbt der neutrale Stimulus affektive Eigenschaften und wird dann konditionierter Stimulus (CS+) genannt. Wenn der CS+ mit Schmerz w{\"a}hrend der Trainingsphase assoziiert wird, leitet er eine defensive Reaktion, wie z.B. Vermeidung ein. Wenn der CS+ mit einer Belohnung assoziiert wird, leitet er eine appetitive Reaktion, wie z.B. Ann{\"a}herungsreaktionen ein. Interessanterweise haben Tierstudien gezeigt, dass ein konditionierter Stimulus vermieden wurde, wenn er einem aversiven US in der Trainingsphase vorausgegangen war (CS+US; Vorw{\"a}rtskonditionierung). Das deutet darauf hin, dass der CS+ aversive Eigenschaften erlangt hat. Jedoch f{\"u}hrte ein konditionierter Stimulus zu einer Ann{\"a}herung, wenn er in der Trainingsphase auf einen aversiven US folgt (US CS+; R{\"u}ckw{\"a}rtskonditionierung). Das deutet darauf hin, dass der CS+ appetitive Eigenschaften erlangt hat. Kann das Event Timing sowohl aversive als auch appetitive konditionierten Reaktionen auch bei Menschen ausl{\"o}sen, die zu Kognitionen bez{\"u}glich der Assoziationen f{\"a}hig sind? Um diese Fragestellung zu beantworten, wurden vier Studien durchgef{\"u}hrt. Die Studien hatten den gleichen Ablauf, variiert wurde nur die Zeit zwischen CS+ und US (das Interstimulusintervall - ISI - ist als das Zeitintervall zwischen dem Onset des CS+ und dem Onset des US definiert). W{\"a}hrend der Akquisitionsphase (Konditionierung) wurden, zwei einfache geometrische Figuren als konditionierte Stimuli dargeboten. Eine geometrische Figur (der CS+) war immer mit einem leichten schmerzhaften elektrischen Reiz (der aversive US) assoziiert; die andere Figur (der CS-) war nie mit dem elektrischen Reiz assoziiert. In einem between-subjects Design wurde entweder eine Vorw{\"a}rtskonditionierung oder eine R{\"u}ckw{\"a}rtskonditionierung durchgef{\"u}hrt. W{\"a}hrend der Testsphase (Extinktion) wurden CS+ und CS- pr{\"a}sentiert sowie zus{\"a}tzlich eine neue neutrale geometrische Figur pr{\"a}sentiert, die als Kontrollstimulus fungierte; der US wurde in dieser Phase nie dargeboten. Vor und nach der Konditionierung wurden die Probanden sowohl bez{\"u}glich der Valenz (bzw. Unangenehmheit und Angenehmheit) als auch der Erregung (bzw. Ruhe und Aufregung) hinsichtlich der geometrischen Figuren befragt. In der ersten Studie wurde der Schreckreflex (Startle Reflex) als Maß f{\"u}r die implizite Valenz der Stimuli gemessen. Der Schreckreflex ist eine defensive Urreaktion, die aus einem Muskelzucken des Gesichts und des K{\"o}rpers besteht. Dieser Reflex ist durch pl{\"o}tzliche und intensive visuelle, taktile oder akustische Reize evoziert. Einerseits war die Amplitude des Startles bei der Anwesenheit des vorw{\"a}rts CS+ potenziert und das deutet daraufhin, dass der CS+ eine implizite negative Valenz nach der Vorw{\"a}rtskonditionierung erworben hat. Anderseits war die Amplitude des Startles bei der Anwesenheit des r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+ abgeschw{\"a}cht, was darauf hin deutet, dass der CS+ nach der R{\"u}ckw{\"a}rtskonditionierung eine implizite positive Valenz erworben hat. In der zweiten Studie wurde die oxygenierte Bloodsresponse (BOLD) mit funktioneller Magnetresonanztomographie (fMRI) erhoben, um neuronale Korrelate des Event-Timings zu erfassen. Eine st{\"a}rkere Aktivierung wurde in der Amygdala in Erwiderung auf den vorw{\"a}rts CS+ und im Striatum in Erwiderung auf den r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+ gefunden. Zum Einen entspricht dies einer Aktivierung des Defensive Motivational Systems, da die Amygdala eine wichtige Rolle beim Angstexpression und Angstakquisition hat. Deshalb wurde der vorw{\"a}rts CS+ als aversiv betrachtet. Zum Anderen entspricht dies einer Aktivierung des Appetitive Motivational System, da das Striatum eine wichtige Rolle bei Belohnung hat. Deshalb wurde der r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+ als appetitiv betrachtet. In der dritten Studie wurden Aufmerksamkeitsprozesse beim Event-Timing n{\"a}her beleuchtet, indem steady-state visuelle evozierte Potentiale (ssVEP) gemessen wurden. Sowohl der vorw{\"a}rts CS+ als auch der r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+ zog Aufmerksamkeit auf sich. Dennoch war die Amplitude der ssVEP großer w{\"a}hrend der letzen Sekunden des vorw{\"a}rts CS+, d.h. direkt vor dem aversiven US. Die Amplitude der ssVEP war aber gr{\"o}ßer w{\"a}hrend der ersten Sekunden des r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+, d.h. kurz nach dem aversiven US. Vermutlich wird die Aufmerksamkeit auf den hinsichtlich des aversiven US informativsten Teil des CS+. Alle Probanden der drei Studien haben den vorw{\"a}rts CS+ und den r{\"u}ckw{\"a}rts CS+ negativer und erregender als den Kontrollstimulus beurteilt. Daher werden die expliziten Ratings vom Event-Timing nicht beeinflusst. Bemerkenswert ist die Dissoziation zwischen den subjektiven Ratings und den physiologischen Reaktionen. Nach der Dual-Prozess Theorie werden die Verhaltensreaktionen des Menschen von zwei Systemen determiniert: einem impulsiv impliziten System, das auf assoziativen Prinzipien beruht, und einem reflektiv expliziten System, das auf der Kenntnis {\"u}ber Fakten und Werte basiert. Wichtig ist, dass die zwei Systeme auf synergetische oder antagonistische Weise agieren k{\"o}nnen. Folglich k{\"o}nnte es sein, dass das impulsive und das reflektive System nach der R{\"u}ckw{\"a}rtskonditionierung antagonistisch arbeiten. Zusammen deuten die vorliegenden Studien daraufhin, dass Event-Timing eine Bestrafung in eine Belohnung umwandeln kann, aber die Probanden erleben den Stimulus assoziiert mit einem aversiven Event als negativ. Diese Dissoziation k{\"o}nnte zum Verst{\"a}ndnis der psychiatrischen St{\"o}rungen wie z.B. Angstst{\"o}rungen oder Drogenabh{\"a}ngigkeit beitragen.},
  subject      = {Gef{\"u}hl},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{MavratzakisHerbertWalla2016,
  author    = {Mavratzakis, Aimee and Herbert, Cornelia and Walla, Peter},
  title     = {Emotional facial expressions evoke faster orienting responses, but weaker emotional responses at neural and behavioural levels compared to scenes: a simultaneous EEG and facial EMG study},
  series = {NeuroImage},
  volume    = {124},
  journal   = {NeuroImage},
  number    = {Part A},
  doi       = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.065},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-191535},
  pages     = {931-946},
  year      = {2016},
  abstract  = {In the current study, electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded simultaneously with facial electromyography (fEMG) to determine whether emotional faces and emotional scenes are processed differently at the neural level. In addition, it was investigated whether these differences can be observed at the behavioural level via spontaneous facial muscle activity. Emotional content of the stimuli did not affect early P1 activity. Emotional faces elicited enhanced amplitudes of the face-sensitive N170 component, while its counterpart, the scene-related N100, was not sensitive to emotional content of scenes. At 220-280 ms, the early posterior negativity (EPN) was enhanced only slightly for fearful as compared to neutral or happy faces. However, its amplitudes were significantly enhanced during processing of scenes with positive content, particularly over the right hemisphere. Scenes of positive content also elicited enhanced spontaneous zygomatic activity from 500-750 ms onwards, while happy faces elicited no such changes. Contrastingly, both fearful faces and negative scenes elicited enhanced spontaneous corrugator activity at 500-750 ms after stimulus onset. However, relative to baseline EMG changes occurred earlier for faces (250 ms) than for scenes (500 ms) whereas for scenes activity changes were more pronounced over the whole viewing period. Taking into account all effects, the data suggests that emotional facial expressions evoke faster attentional orienting, but weaker affective neural activity and emotional behavioural responses compared to emotional scenes.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Wu2013,
  author    = {Wu, Lingdan},
  title     = {Emotion Regulation in Addicted Smokers},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-85471},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Background: Nicotine addiction is the most prevalent type of drug addiction that has been described as a cycle of spiraling dysregulation of the brain reward systems. Imaging studies have shown that nicotine addiction is associated with abnormal function in prefrontal brain regions that are important for cognitive emotion regulation. It was assumed that addicts may perform less well than healthy nonsmokers in cognitive emotion regulation tasks. The primary aims of this thesis were to investigate emotional responses to natural rewards among smokers and nonsmokers and to determine whether smokers differ from nonsmokers in cognitive regulation of positive and negative emotions. To address these aims, two forms of appraisal paradigms (i.e., appraisal frame and reappraisal) were applied to compare changes in emotional responses of smokers with that of nonsmokers as a function of appraisal strategies. Experiment 1: The aim of the first experiment was to evaluate whether and how appraisal frames preceding positive and negative picture stimuli affect emotional experience and facial expression of individuals. Twenty participants were exposed to 125 pairs of auditory appraisal frames (either neutral or emotional) followed by picture stimuli reflecting five conditions: unpleasant-negative, unpleasant-neutral, pleasant-positive, pleasant-neutral and neutral-neutral. Ratings of valence and arousal as well as facial EMG activity over the corrugator supercilii and the zygomaticus major were measured simultaneously. The results indicated that appraisal frames could alter both subjective emotional experience and facial expressions, irrespective of the valence of the pictorial stimuli. These results suggest and support that appraisal frame is an efficient paradigm in regulation of multi-level emotional responses. 8 Experiment 2: The second experiment applied the appraisal frame paradigm to investigate how smokers differ from nonsmokers on cognitive emotion regulation. Sixty participants (22 nonsmokers, 19 nondeprived smokers and 19 12-h deprived smokers) completed emotion regulation tasks as described in Experiment 1 while emotional responses were concurrently recorded as reflected by self-ratings and psychophysiological measures (i.e., facial EMG and EEG). The results indicated that there was no group difference on emotional responses to natural rewards. Moreover, nondeprived smokers and deprived smokers performed as well as nonsmokers on the emotion regulation task. The lack of group differences in multiple emotional responses (i.e., self-reports, facial EMG activity and brain EEG activity) suggests that nicotine addicts have no deficit in cognitive emotion regulation of natural rewards via appraisal frames. Experiment 3: The third experiment aimed to further evaluate smokers' emotion regulation ability by comparing performances of smokers and nonsmokers in a more challenging cognitive task (i.e., reappraisal task). Sixty-five participants (23 nonsmokers, 22 nondeprived smokers and 20 12-h deprived smokers) were instructed to regulate emotions by imagining that the depicted negative or positive scenario would become less negative or less positive over time, respectively. The results showed that nondeprived smokers and deprived smokers responded similarly to emotional pictures and performed as well as nonsmokers in down-regulating positive and negative emotions via the reappraisal strategy. These results indicated that nicotine addicts do not have deficit in emotion regulation using cognitive appraisal strategies. In sum, the three studies consistently revealed that addicted smokers were capable to regulate emotions via appraisal strategies. This thesis establishes the groundwork for therapeutic use of appraisal instructions to cope with potential self-regulation failures in nicotine addicts.},
  subject      = {Gef{\"u}hl},
  language  = {en}
}