@phdthesis{Gador2018,
  author    = {Gador, Eva},
  title     = {Strategies to improve the biological performance of protein therapeutics},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-161798},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  pages     = {199},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {During the last decades the number of biologics increased dramatically and several biopharmaceutical drugs such as peptides, therapeutic proteins, hormones, enzymes, vaccines, monoclonal antibodies and antibody-drug conjugates conquered the market. Moreover, administration and local delivery of growth factors has gained substantial importance in the field of tissue engineering. Despite progress that has been made over the last decades formulation and delivery of therapeutic proteins is still a challenge. Thus, we worked on formulation and delivery strategies of therapeutic proteins to improve their biological performance. Phase I of this work deals with protein stability with the main focus on a liquid protein formulation of the dimeric fusion protein PR-15, a lesion specific platelet adhesion inhibitor. In order to develop an adequate formulation ensuring the stability and bioactivity of PR-15 during storage at 4 °C, a pH screening, a forced degradation and a Design of Experiments (DoE) was performed. First the stability and bioactivity of PR-15 in 50 mM histidine buffer in relation to pH was evaluated in a short-term storage stability study at 25 °C and 40 °C for 4 and 8 weeks using different analytical methods. Additionally, potential degradation pathways of PR-15 were investigated under stressed conditions such as heat treatment, acidic or basic pH, freeze-thaw cycles, light exposure, induced oxidation and induced deamidation during the forced degradation study. Moreover, we were able to identify the main degradation product of PR-15 by performing LC/ESI-MS analysis. Further optimization of the injectable PR 15 formulation concerning pH, the choice of buffer and the addition of excipients was studied in the following DoE and finally an optimal PR-15 formulation was found. The growth factors BMP-2, IGF-I and TGF-β3 were selected for the differentiation of stem cells for tissue engineering of cartilage and bone in order to prepare multifunctionalized osteochondral implants for the regeneration of cartilage defects. Silk fibroin (SF) was chosen as biomaterial because of its biocompatibility, mechanical properties and its opportunity for biofunctionalization. Ideal geometry of SF scaffolds with optimal porosity was found in order to generate both tissues on one scaffold. The growth factors BMP-2 and IGF-I were modified to allow spatially restricted covalent immobilization on the generated porous SF scaffolds. In order to perform site-directed covalent coupling by the usage of click chemistry on two opposite sides of the scaffold, we genetically engineered BMP-2 (not shown in this work; performed by Barbara Tabisz) and IGF-I for the introduction of alkyne or azide bearing artificial amino acids. TGF β3 was immobilized to beads through common EDC/NHS chemistry requiring no modification and distributed in the pores of the entire scaffold. For this reason protein modification, protein engineering, protein immobilization and bioconjugation are investigated in phase II. Beside the synthesis the focus was on the characterization of such modified proteins and its conjugates. The field of protein engineering offers a wide range of possibilities to modify existing proteins or to design new proteins with prolonged serum half-life, increased conformational stability or improved release rates according to their clinical use. Site-directed click chemistry and non-site-directed EDC/NHS chemistry were used for bioconjugation and protein immobilization with the aim to underline the preferences of site-directed coupling. We chose three strategies for the incorporation of alkyne or azide functionality for the performance of click reaction into the protein of interest: diazonium coupling reaction, PEGylation and genetic engineering. Azido groups were successfully introduced into SF by implementation of diazonium coupling and alkyne, amino or acid functionality was incorporated into FGF-2 as model protein by means of thiol PEGylation. The proper folding of FGF-2 after PEGylation was assessed by fluorescence spectroscopy, WST-1 proliferation assay ensured moderate bioactivity and the purity of PEGylated FGF-2 samples was monitored with RP-HPLC. Moreover, the modification of native FGF-2 with 10 kDa PEG chains resulted in enhanced thermal stability. Additionally, we genetically engineered one IGF-I mutant by incorporating the unnatural amino acid propargyl-L-lysine (plk) at position 65 into the IGF-I amino acid sequence and were able to express hardly verifiable amounts of plk-IGF-I. Consequently, plk-IGF-I expression has to be further optimized in future studies in order to generate plk-IGF-I with higher yields. Bioconjugation of PEGylated FGF-2 with functionalized silk was performed in solution and was successful for click as well as EDC/NHS chemistry. However, substantial amounts of unreacted PEG-FGF-2 were adsorbed to SF and could not be removed from the reaction mixture making it impossible to expose the advantages of click chemistry in relation to EDC/NHS chemistry. The immobilization of PEG-FGF-2 to microspheres was a trial to increase product yield and to remove unreacted PEG-FGF-2 from reaction mixture. Bound PEG-FGF-2 was visualized by fluorescence imaging or flow cytometry and bioactivity was assessed by analysis of the proliferation of NIH 3T3 cells. However, immobilization on beads raised the same issue as in solution: adsorption caused by electrostatic interactions of positively charged FGF-2 and negatively charged SF or beads. Finally, we were not able to prove superiority of site-directed click chemistry over non-site-directed EDC/NHS. The skills and knowledge in protein immobilization as well as protein characterization acquired during phase II helped us in phase III to engineer cartilage tissue in biofunctionalized SF scaffolds. The approach of covalent immobilization of the required growth factors is relevant because of their short in vivo half-lives and aimed at controlling their bioavailability. So TGF-β3 was covalently coupled by means of EDC/NHS chemistry to biocompatible and biostable PMMA beads. Herein, we directly compared bioactivity of covalently coupled and adsorbed TGF-β3. During the so-called luciferase assay bioactivity of covalent coupled as well as adsorbed TGF-β3 on PMMA beads was ensured. In order to investigate the real influence of EDC/NHS chemistry on TGF-β3's bioactivity, the amount of immobilized TGF-β3 on PMMA beads was determined. Therefore, an ELISA method was established. The assessment of total amount of TGF-β3 immobilized on the PMMA beads allowed as to calculate coupling efficiency. A significantly higher coupling efficiency was determined for the coupling of TGF-β3 via EDC/NHS chemistry compared to the reaction without coupling reagents indicating a small amount of adsorbed TGF-β3. These results provide opportunity to determine the consequence of coupling by means of EDC/NHS chemistry for TGF β3 bioactivity. At first sight, no statistically significant difference between covalent immobilized and adsorbed TGF-β3 was observed regarding relative luciferase activities. But during comparison of total and active amount of TGF-β3 on PMMA beads detected by ELISA or luciferase assay, respectively, a decrease of TGF-β3's bioactivity became apparent. Nevertheless, immobilized TGF β3 was further investigated in combination with SF scaffolds in order to drive BMSCs to the chondrogenic lineage. According to the results obtained through histological and immunohistochemical studies, biochemical assays as well as qRT-PCR of gene expression from BMSCs after 21 days in culture immobilized TGF-β3 was able to engineer cartilage tissue. These findings support the thesis that local presentation of TGF β3 is superior towards exogenous TGF β3 for the development of hyaline cartilage. Furthermore, we conclude that covalent immobilized TGF β3 is not only superior towards exogenously supplemented TGF-β3 but also superior towards adsorbed TGF-β3 for articular hyaline cartilage tissue engineering. Diffusion processes were inhibited through covalent immobilization of TGF-β3 to PMMA beads and thereby a stable and consistent TGF-β3 concentration was maintained in the target area. With the knowledge acquired during phase II and III as well as during the studies of Barbara Tabisz concerning the expression and purification of plk-BMP-2 we made considerable progress towards the formation of multifunctionalized osteochondral implants for the regeneration of cartilage defects. However, further studies are required for the translation of these insights into the development of multifunctionalized osteochondral SF scaffolds.},
  subject      = {biologics},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Letschert2019,
  author    = {Letschert, Sebastian},
  title     = {Quantitative Analysis of Membrane Components using Super-Resolution Microscopy},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-16213},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-162139},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {The plasma membrane is one of the most thoroughly studied and at the same time most complex, diverse, and least understood cellular structures. Its function is determined by the molecular composition as well as the spatial arrangement of its components. Even after decades of extensive membrane research and the proposal of dozens of models and theories, the structural organization of plasma membranes remains largely unknown. Modern imaging tools such as super-resolution fluorescence microscopy are one of the most efficient techniques in life sciences and are widely used to study the spatial arrangement and quantitative behavior of biomolecules in fixed and living cells. In this work, direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) was used to investigate the structural distribution of mem-brane components with virtually molecular resolution. Key issues are different preparation and staining strategies for membrane imaging as well as localization-based quantitative analyses of membrane molecules. An essential precondition for the spatial and quantitative analysis of membrane components is the prevention of photoswitching artifacts in reconstructed localization microscopy images. Therefore, the impact of irradiation intensity, label density and photoswitching behavior on the distribution of plasma membrane and mitochondrial membrane proteins in dSTORM images was investigated. It is demonstrated that the combination of densely labeled plasma membranes and inappropriate photoswitching rates induces artificial membrane clusters. Moreover, inhomogeneous localization distributions induced by projections of three-dimensional membrane structures such as microvilli and vesicles are prone to generate artifacts in images of biological membranes. Alternative imaging techniques and ways to prevent artifacts in single-molecule localization microscopy are presented and extensively discussed. Another central topic addresses the spatial organization of glycosylated components covering the cell membrane. It is shown that a bioorthogonal chemical reporter system consisting of modified monosaccharide precursors and organic fluorophores can be used for specific labeling of membrane-associated glycoproteins and -lipids. The distribution of glycans was visualized by dSTORM showing a homogeneous molecule distribution on different mammalian cell lines without the presence of clusters. An absolute number of around five million glycans per cell was estimated and the results show that the combination of metabolic labeling, click chemistry, and single-molecule localization microscopy can be efficiently used to study cell surface glycoconjugates. In a third project, dSTORM was performed to investigate low-expressing receptors on cancer cells which can act as targets in personalized immunotherapy. Primary multiple myeloma cells derived from the bone marrow of several patients were analyzed for CD19 expression as potential target for chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells. Depending on the patient, 60-1,600 CD19 molecules per cell were quantified and functional in vitro tests demonstrate that the threshold for CD19 CAR T recognition is below 100 CD19 molecules per target cell. Results are compared with flow cytometry data, and the important roles of efficient labeling and appropriate control experiments are discussed.},
  subject      = {Fluoreszenzmikroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Werner2015,
  author    = {Werner, Vera},
  title     = {Pharmaceutically relevant protein-protein interactions for controlled drug delivery},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-117409},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {Protein-protein interactions play a crucial role in the development of drug delivery devices for the increasingly important biologicals, including antibodies, growth factors and cytokines. The understanding thereof might offer opportunities for tailoring carriers or drug proteins specifically for this purpose and thereby allow controlled delivery to a chosen target. The possible applications range from trigger-dependent release to sustained drug delivery and possibly permanently present stimuli, depending on the anticipated mechanism. Silk fibroin (SF) is a biomaterial that is suitable as a carrier for protein drug delivery devices. It combines processability under mild conditions, good biocompatibility and stabilizing effects on incorporated proteins. As SF is naturally produced by spiders and silkworms, the understanding of this process and its major factors might offer a blueprint for formulation scientists, interested in working with this biopolymer. The natural process of silk spinning covers a fascinating versatility of aggregate states, ranging from colloidal solutions through hydrogels to solid systems. The transition among these states is controlled by a carefully orchestrated process in vivo. Major players within the natural process include the control of spatial pH throughout passage of the silk dope, the composition and type of ions, and fluid flow mechanics within the duct, respectively. The function of these input parameters on the spinning process is reviewed before detailing their impact on the design and manufacture of silk based drug delivery systems (DDS). Examples are reported including the control of hydrogel formation during storage or significant parameters controlling precipitation in the presence of appropriate salts, respectively. The review details the use of silk fibroin to develop liquid, semiliquid or solid DDS with a focus on the control of SF crystallization, particle formation, and drug-SF interaction for tailored drug load. Although we were able to show many examples for SF drug delivery applications and there are many publications about the loading of biologics to SF systems, the mechanism of interaction between both in solution was not yet extensively explored. This is why we made this the subject of our work, as it might allow for direct influence on pharmaceutical parameters, like aggregation and drug load. In order to understand the underlying mechanism for the interaction between SF and positively charged model proteins, we used isothermal titration calorimetry for thermodynamic characterization. This was supported by hydrophobicity analysis and by colloidal characterization methods including static light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis and zeta potential measurements. We studied the effects of three Hofmeister salts - NaCl (neutral), NaSCN (chaotropic) and Na2SO4 (cosmotropic) - and the pH on the interaction of SF with the model proteins in dependence of the ratio from one to another. The salts impacted the SF structure by stabilizing (cosmotropic) or destabilizing (chaotropic) the SF micelles, resulting in completely abolished (cosmotropic) or strongly enhanced (chaotropic) interaction. These effects were responsible for different levels of loading and coacervation when varying type of salt and its concentration. Additionally, NaCl and NaSCN were able to prolong the stability of aqueous SF solution during storage at 25°C in a preliminary study. Another approach to influence protein-protein interactions was followed by covalent modification. Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a cytokine driving macrophages to M2 macrophages, which are known to provide anti-inflammatory effects. The possibility to regulate the polarization of macrophages to this state might be attractive for a variety of diseases, like atherosclerosis, in which macrophages are involved. As these cases demand a long-term treatment, this polarization was supposed to be maintained over time and we were planning to achieve this by keeping IL-4 permanently present in an immobilized way. In order to immobilize it, we genetically introduced an alkyne-carrying, artificial amino acid in the IL-4 sequence. This allowed access to a site-specific click reaction (Cu(I)-catalyzed Huisgen azide-alkyne cycloaddition) with an azide partner. This study was able to set the basis for the project by successful expression and purification of the IL-4 analogue and by proving the availability for the click reaction and maintained bioactivity. The other side of this project was the isolation of human monocytes and the polarization and characterization of human macrophages. The challenge here was that the majority of related research was based on murine macrophages which was not applicable to human cells and the successful work was so far limited to establishing the necessary methods. In conclusion, we were able to show two different methods that allow the influence of protein-protein interactions and thereby the possible tailoring of drug loading. Although the results were very promising for both systems, their applicability in the development of drug delivery devices needs to be shown by further studies.},
  subject      = {Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkung},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{AltmannMutWolfetal.2021,
  author    = {Altmann, Stephan and Mut, J{\"u}rgen and Wolf, Natalia and Meißner-Weigl, Jutta and Rudert, Maximilian and Jakob, Franz and Gutmann, Marcus and L{\"u}hmann, Tessa and Seibel, J{\"u}rgen and Ebert, Regina},
  title     = {Metabolic glycoengineering in hMSC-TERT as a model for skeletal precursors by using modified azide/alkyne monosaccharides},
  series = {International Journal of Molecular Sciences},
  volume    = {22},
  journal   = {International Journal of Molecular Sciences},
  number    = {6},
  issn      = {1422-0067},
  doi       = {10.3390/ijms22062820},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-259247},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Metabolic glycoengineering enables a directed modification of cell surfaces by introducing target molecules to surface proteins displaying new features. Biochemical pathways involving glycans differ in dependence on the cell type; therefore, this technique should be tailored for the best results. We characterized metabolic glycoengineering in telomerase-immortalized human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSC-TERT) as a model for primary hMSC, to investigate its applicability in TERT-modified cell lines. The metabolic incorporation of N-azidoacetylmannosamine (Ac\(_4\)ManNAz) and N-alkyneacetylmannosamine (Ac\(_4\)ManNAl) into the glycocalyx as a first step in the glycoengineering process revealed no adverse effects on cell viability or gene expression, and the in vitro multipotency (osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation potential) was maintained under these adapted culture conditions. In the second step, glycoengineered cells were modified with fluorescent dyes using Cu-mediated click chemistry. In these analyses, the two mannose derivatives showed superior incorporation efficiencies compared to glucose and galactose isomers. In time-dependent experiments, the incorporation of Ac\(_4\)ManNAz was detectable for up to six days while Ac\(_4\)ManNAl-derived metabolites were absent after two days. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the successful metabolic glycoengineering of immortalized hMSC resulting in transient cell surface modifications, and thus present a useful model to address different scientific questions regarding glycosylation processes in skeletal precursors.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Meinhardt2011,
  author    = {Meinhardt, Thomas},
  title     = {Effiziente Oberfl{\"a}chen-Funktionalisierung von Nanodiamant durch die Click-Reaktion von Alkinen und Aziden},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-66410},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {In dieser Arbeit wurde die Kupfer(I)-katalysierte Cycloaddition von Alkinen und Aziden ("Click-Chemie") als effiziente, vielseitige und milde Reaktion f{\"u}r die Funktionalisierung von Nanodiamantpartikeln etabliert. Es wurden verschiedene Alkin- oder Azid-funktionalisierte Nanodiamantsysteme hergestellt und deren Reaktivit{\"a}t in Click-Reaktionen anhand vielf{\"a}ltiger Beispiele demonstriert. Hierzu wurden neben einfachen Testverbindungen auch komplexere Substanzen (z. B. ein Mannose-Derivat, Polytriazole, Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe, ein Thiazolium-Organokatalysator) durch Triazolsynthese immobilisiert. Zus{\"a}tzlich wurde eine Methode entwickelt, die die Herstellung funktionalisierter und vollst{\"a}ndig dispergierter Nanodiamant-Prim{\"a}rteilchen erm{\"o}glicht, wobei gezeigt wurde, dass dieser Weg auch f{\"u}r die Funktionalisierung durch Click-Chemie geeignet ist. Die Analyse der Nanodiamantpartikel erfolgte u. a. durch FT-IR, TGA, Elementaranalyse, Partikelgr{\"o}ßen- und Zetapotentialbestimmung, NMR, HR-TEM, UV / Vis sowie Fluoreszenzspektroskopie und -mikroskopie.},
  subject      = {Funktionalisierung <Chemie>},
  language  = {de}
}
@article{BrandForsterBoecketal.2022,
  author    = {Brand, Jessica S. and Forster, Leonard and B{\"o}ck, Thomas and Stahlhut, Philipp and Teßmar, J{\"o}rg and Groll, J{\"u}rgen and Albrecht, Krystyna},
  title     = {Covalently Cross-Linked Pig Gastric Mucin Hydrogels Prepared by Radical-Based Chain-Growth and Thiol-ene Mechanisms},
  series = {Macromolecular Bioscience},
  volume    = {22},
  journal   = {Macromolecular Bioscience},
  number    = {4},
  doi       = {10.1002/mabi.202100274},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318453},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Mucin, a high molecular mass hydrophilic glycoprotein, is the main component of mucus that coats every wet epithelium in animals. It is thus intrinsically biocompatible, and with its protein backbone and the o-glycosidic bound oligosaccharides, it contains a plethora of functional groups which can be used for further chemical modifications. Here, chain-growth and step-growth (thiol-ene) free-radical cross-linked hydrogels prepared from commercially available pig gastric mucin (PGM) are introduced and compared as cost-efficient and easily accessible alternative to the more broadly applied bovine submaxillary gland mucin. For this, PGM is functionalized with photoreactive acrylate groups or allyl ether moieties, respectively. Whereas homopolymerization of acrylate-functionalized polymers is performed, for thiol-ene cross-linking, the allyl-ether-functionalized PGM is cross-linked with thiol-functionalized hyaluronic acid. Morphology, mechanical properties, and cell compatibility of both kinds of PGM hydrogels are characterized and compared. Furthermore, the biocompatibility of these hydrogels can be evaluated in cell culture experiments.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{SolgerKunzFinketal.2020,
  author    = {Solger, Franziska and Kunz, Tobias C. and Fink, Julian and Paprotka, Kerstin and Pfister, Pauline and Hagen, Franziska and Schumacher, Fabian and Kleuser, Burkhard and Seibel, J{\"u}rgen and Rudel, Thomas},
  title     = {A Role of Sphingosine in the Intracellular Survival of Neisseria gonorrhoeae},
  series = {Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology},
  volume    = {10},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology},
  issn      = {2235-2988},
  doi       = {10.3389/fcimb.2020.00215},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-204111},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Obligate human pathogenic Neisseria gonorrhoeae are the second most frequent bacterial cause of sexually transmitted diseases. These bacteria invade different mucosal tissues and occasionally disseminate into the bloodstream. Invasion into epithelial cells requires the activation of host cell receptors by the formation of ceramide-rich platforms. Here, we investigated the role of sphingosine in the invasion and intracellular survival of gonococci. Sphingosine exhibited an anti-gonococcal activity in vitro. We used specific sphingosine analogs and click chemistry to visualize sphingosine in infected cells. Sphingosine localized to the membrane of intracellular gonococci. Inhibitor studies and the application of a sphingosine derivative indicated that increased sphingosine levels reduced the intracellular survival of gonococci. We demonstrate here, that sphingosine can target intracellular bacteria and may therefore exert a direct bactericidal effect inside cells.},
  language  = {en}
}