@phdthesis{Rueckert2023,
  author    = {R{\"u}ckert, Martin Andreas},
  title     = {Rotationsdriftspektroskopie},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-26863},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-268631},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Die wachsende Verf{\"u}gbarkeit von magnetischen Nanopartikeln (MNPs) mit funktionalisierten Partikeloberfl{\"a}chen er{\"o}ffnet weitreichende M{\"o}glichkeiten f{\"u}r chemische, biologische und klinische Analysemethoden. Durch Funktionalisierung kann eine gezielte Interaktion mit Molek{\"u}len bewirkt werden, die im Allgemeinen auch die Beweglichkeit der MNPs ver{\"a}ndern. Methoden zur Charakterisierung von MNPs wie bspw. AC-Suszeptometrie, Magnetorelaxometrie (MRX) oder Magnetic Particle Spectroscopy (MPS) k{\"o}nnen diese {\"A}nderung der Beweglichkeit bei MNPs messen, wenn es sich um MNPs handelt, deren magnetisches Moment im Partikel fixiert ist. Damit ist mit funktionalisierten MNPs indirekt auch die spezifische Messung von Molek{\"u}lkonzentrationen m{\"o}glich. MNPs k{\"o}nnen zudem in biokompatibler Form hergestellt werden und sind dadurch auch als in-vivo Marker einsetzbar. Das 2005 das erste Mal ver{\"o}ffentlichte Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) kann als ein mittels Gradientenfeldern um die r{\"a}umliche Kodierung erweitertes MPS betrachtet werden. Dank biokompatibler MNPs handelt es sich dabei um eine in-vivo-taugliche, nicht-invasive Bildgebungsmethode. Mit funktionalisierten MNPs als Marker ist damit im Prinzip auch molekulare Bildgebung m{\"o}glich, die durch Detektion der beteiligten Molek{\"u}le (Biomarker) Stoffwechselprozesse r{\"a}umlich abbilden kann. Im Vergleich zur Bildgebung von Gewebe- und Knochenstrukturen lassen sich die diagnostischen M{\"o}glichkeiten durch molekulare Bildgebung erheblich erweitern. Rotationsdriftspektroskopie (Rotational Drift Spectroscopy, RDS) ist eine in dieser Arbeit entwickelte Methode f{\"u}r die induktive Messung der Beweglichkeit von MNPs in fl{\"u}ssiger Suspension. Es verwendet die Rotationsdrift von MNPs in rotierenden magnetischen Feldern als Grundlage und bietet das Potential die {\"A}nderungen der Beweglichkeit von MNPs mit einer Empfindlichkeit messen zu k{\"o}nnen, welche potentiell um mehrere Gr{\"o}ßenordnungen h{\"o}her sein kann als mit den oben erw{\"a}hnten Verfahren. Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf die Verwendbarkeit dieses Effekts als Spektroskopiemethode. Die Eigenschaften des RDS-Signals sind jedoch auch als Grundlage f{\"u}r r{\"a}umliche Kodierung vielversprechend. In weiterf{\"u}hrenden Projekten soll daher auch die Entwicklung von Rotationsdriftbildgebung (Rotating Drift Imaging, RDI) als ein nicht-invasives Verfahren f{\"u}r molekulare Bildgebung angestrebt werden. Der Grundgedanke von RDS entlehnt sich aus einem in 2006 ver{\"o}ffentlichten Sensordesign basierend auf magnetische Mikropartikel in einem schwachen rotierenden Magnetfeld. Das rotierende Magnetfeld ist dabei so schwach gew{\"a}hlt, dass sich das Partikel aufgrund der viskosen Reibung nicht mehr synchron mit dem externen Feld drehen kann. Die Frequenz der resultierenden asynchronen Rotationsdrift liegt unterhalb der Frequenz des externen Rotationsfelds und ist Abh{\"a}ngig von der viskosen Reibung. Aufgrund dieser Abh{\"a}ngigkeit k{\"o}nnen {\"A}nderungen im Reibungskoeffizienten des Partikels {\"u}ber {\"A}nderungen in der Rotationsdriftfrequenz gemessen werden. RDS zielt darauf ab, diese Rotationsdrift bei suspendierten MNPs {\"u}ber deren makroskopische Magnetisierung messen zu k{\"o}nnen. Damit wird u.a. auch die nicht-invasive Messung von MNPs innerhalb opaker biologischer Proben m{\"o}glich. MNP-Suspensionen sind großzahlige Nanopartikel-ensembles und k{\"o}nnen nicht wie ein einzelnes Mikropartikel gemessen werden. F{\"u}r die induktive Messung ist vor dem Start eine Ausrichtung aller magnetischen Momente n{\"o}tig, da sich deren makroskopische Magnetisierung andernfalls zu Null addiert. Aufgrund von Rotationsdiffusion bleibt diese Ausrichtung nur eine begrenzte Zeit bestehen, so dass auch die eigentliche Messung des RDS-Signals nur eine begrenzte Zeit m{\"o}glich ist. Diese Ausrichtung wurde in den ersten Experimenten durch einen kurzen Magnetfeldpuls erzeugt. In der Empfangsspule ist die Induktion durch das Rotationsfeld typischer Weise um mehrere Gr{\"o}ßenordnungen h{\"o}her als das zu erwartende Signal und muss durch einen Tiefpass unterdr{\"u}ckt werden. In diesem Tiefpassfilter ruft jedoch die Einkopplung des Anfangspulses eine Pulsantwort hervor, die ebenso mehrere Gr{\"o}ßenordnungen des zu erwartenden Signals betragen kann und {\"a}hnlich langsam wie typische Signale abklingt. Die Unterdr{\"u}ckung dieser Pulsantwort stellte in den ersten Experimenten die gr{\"o}ßte H{\"u}rde da. Der erste Aufbau hatte eine Relaisschaltung zur Pulsunterdr{\"u}ckung und resultierte in einer Totzeit von 3 ms zwischen Anfangspuls und Start der Messung. Aufgrund dieser Totzeit waren die ersten Messungen auf gr{\"o}ßere Agglomerate und Sedimente von MNPs beschr{\"a}nkt, da nur in diesem Fall eine hinreichend lange Zerfallsdauer der Probenmagnetisierung vorlag. Das Verhalten derartiger Partikelsysteme ist jedoch aufgrund von mechanischer und magnetischer Interpartikelwechselwirkung vergleichsweise komplex und theoretisch schwer modellierbar. Das prim{\"a}re Zielsystem f{\"u}r RDS hingegen, Eindom{\"a}nenpartikel mit im Partikel fixierter Magnetisierung und Punktsymmetrie bzgl. des Reibungstensors, erlaubt die Aufstellung einer parametrisierten Funktion f{\"u}r den Signalverlauf. Es erm{\"o}glicht somit aufgrund der besseren Berechenbarkeit eine solidere Auswertung des RDS-Signals. Um Eindom{\"a}nenpartikel in w{\"a}ssriger Suspension mit typischen Partikeldurchmessern um 100 nm messen zu k{\"o}nnen ist eine Verk{\"u}rzung der Totzeit auf mindestens 1/10 erforderlich. Prinzipiell kann diese Problematik durch die Verwendung schneller Halbleiterschalter in Verbindung mit einer pr{\"a}zise abstimmbaren induktiven Entkopplung des Spulensystems gemindert werden. Simulationen des RDS-Signals f{\"u}r verschiedene RDS-Sequenzen zeigen jedoch noch zwei weitere M{\"o}glichkeiten auf, die ohne aufw{\"a}ndigen Eingriffe in der Hardware auskommen. Zum einen kann durch orthogonales Frequenzmischen mit geeignetem Frequenz- und Phasenverh{\"a}ltnis eine Ausrichtung der magnetischen Momente bewirkt werden. Da die ben{\"o}tigten Frequenzen vollst{\"a}ndig im Sperrband des Tiefpassfilters liegen k{\"o}nnen, l{\"a}sst sich damit die Pulsantwort bei hinreichend „weichem" Umschalten zwischen der Polarisierungssequenz und der RDS-Sequenz vollst{\"a}ndig vermeiden. Dar{\"u}ber hinaus zeigt sich, dass es bei Anwesenheit eines schwachen Offsetfelds (< 10 \% der Rotationsfeldamplitude) zu einer Ausrichtung der magnetischen Momente kommt, wenn das magnetische Rotationsfeld seine Richtung {\"a}ndert und diese {\"A}nderung nicht abrupt erfolgt, sondern das Rotationsfeld {\"u}bergangsweise in ein linear oszillierendes Feld {\"u}bergeht. Hingegen wird die Wirkung des Offsetfelds durch das Rotationsfeld vor und nach dem Wechsel nahezu vollst{\"a}ndig neutralisiert, so dass damit das St{\"o}rsignale generierende Schalten eines Offsetfelds ersetzt werden kann. Es ist auf diese Weise nicht m{\"o}glich, Echosequenzen zu erzeugen, da hier bei der f{\"u}r Echosequenzen ben{\"o}tigten Richtungsumkehr des Rotationsfelds die zuvor aufgepr{\"a}gte Phasenverteilung durch das Offsetfeld zerst{\"o}rt wird und somit anstelle einer Signalechogenerierung eine neue RDS-Messung gestartet wird. Obwohl es Echosequenzen mit Anfangspuls erlauben, mehr MNP Parameter zu messen, bietet dieser Ansatz dennoch entscheidende Vorteile. So ergibt sich eine massive Vereinfachung der Hardware und es sind bei gleicher Rotationsfrequenz deutlich h{\"o}here Wiederholraten m{\"o}glich. Die Vermeidung von Schaltvorg{\"a}ngen durch die Verwendung von Offsetfeldern erm{\"o}glicht es, mit dem urspr{\"u}nglichem Aufbau auch Partikelsysteme zu untersuchen, deren Relaxationszeit weit unter 3 ms liegt. Hier zeigt sich, dass sich f{\"u}r unterschiedliche Partikelsysteme teils sehr charakteristische Signalmuster ergeben. Diese lassen sich grob in drei Kategorien einteilen. Die erste Kategorie sind suspendierte Eindom{\"a}nenpartikel mit einer nicht vernachl{\"a}ssigbaren Relaxationszeit. Hier handelt es sich um das bevorzugte Zielsystem f{\"u}r RDS, das durch die Langevin-Gleichung beschrieben werden kann. Die zweite Kategorie sind Partikelsysteme, bei denen die Relaxationsdauer vernachl{\"a}ssigbar ist. In diesem Fall kann der Signalverlauf mit der Langevinfunktion beschrieben werden. Die dritte Kategorie umfasst alle {\"u}brigen Partikelsysteme, insbesondere Suspensionen von MNP-Clustern, die u.a. aufgrund von Interpartikelwechselwirkung komplexe Signalverl{\"a}ufe ergeben, die sich praktisch nicht berechnen lassen. Spektroskopische Untersuchungen sind damit dennoch durch das Anlegen entsprechender Referenzdatenbanken m{\"o}glich (Fingerprinting). Multiparametrisches RDS, d.h. die Wiederholung der Messung f{\"u}r z.B. unterschiedliche Amplituden oder unterschiedliche Viskosit{\"a}ten des Suspensionsmediums, erzeugt aufgrund mehrerer nichtlinearer Abh{\"a}ngigkeiten massive Unterschiede im resultierenden multidimensionalen Datensatz. Das verspricht die Erreichbarkeit hoher spektroskopischer Trennsch{\"a}rfen bei geeigneter Partikel- und Sequenzoptimierung. Die Simulationen und experimentellen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen grunds{\"a}tzliche H{\"u}rden und M{\"o}glichkeiten f{\"u}r das ebenfalls in dieser Arbeit eingef{\"u}hrte RDS auf. Es zeigt damit grundlegende Aspekte auf, die f{\"u}r die Entwicklung von RDS-Hardware und die Optimierung von MNP-Suspensionen n{\"o}tig sind. Mit RDS wird in weiterf{\"u}hrenden Arbeiten die Entwicklung von hochempfindlichen Bioassays und die Erweiterung um die r{\"a}umliche Kodierung angestrebt (RDI), da der zugrunde liegende Effekt zugleich sehr vielversprechend als Grundlage f{\"u}r molekulare Bildgebung ist.},
  subject      = {Magnetteilchen},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Bauernfeind2023,
  author    = {Bauernfeind, Maximilian Josef Xaver},
  title     = {Epitaxy and Spectroscopy of Two-Dimensional Adatom Systems: the Elemental Topological Insulator Indenene on SiC},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-31166},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-311662},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Two-dimensional (2D) topological insulators are a new class of materials with properties that are promising for potential future applications in quantum computers. For example, stanene represents a possible candidate for a topological insulator made of Sn atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. However, it has a relatively fragile low-energy spectrum and sensitive topology. Therefore, to experimentally realize stanene in the topologically non-trivial phase, a suitable substrate that accommodates stanene without compromising these topological properties must be found. A heterostructure consisting of a SiC substrate with a buffer layer of adsorbed group-III elements constitutes a possible solution for this problem. In this work, 2D adatom systems of Al and In were grown epitaxially on SiC(0001) and then investigated structurally and spectroscopically by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and photoelectron spectroscopy. Al films in the high coverage regime \( (\Theta_{ML}\approx2\) ML\( ) \) exhibit unusually large, triangular- and rectangular-shaped surface unit cells. Here, the low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) pattern is brought into accordance with the surface topography derived from STM. Another Al reconstruction, the quasi-one-dimensional (1D) Al phase, exhibits a striped surface corrugation, which could be the result of the strain imprinted by the overlayer-substrate lattice mismatch. It is suggested that Al atoms in different surface areas can occupy hexagonal close-packed and face-centered cubic lattice sites, respectively, which in turn lead to close-packed transition regions forming the stripe-like corrugations. On the basis of the well-known herringbone reconstruction from Au(111), a first structural model is proposed, which fits well to the structural data from STM. Ultimately, however, thermal treatments of the sample could not generate lower coverage phases, i.e. in particular, a buffer layer structure. Strong metallic signatures are found for In high coverage films \( (\Theta_{ML}\approx3\) to \(2\) ML\() \) by scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES), which form a \( (7\times7) \), \( (6\times4\sqrt{3}) \), and \( (4\sqrt{3}\times4\sqrt{3}) \) surface reconstruction. In all these In phases electrons follow the nearly-free electron model. Similar to the Al films, thermal treatments could not obtain the buffer layer system. Surprisingly, in the course of this investigation a triangular In lattice featuring a \( (1\times1) \) periodicity is observed to host massive Dirac-like bands at \( K/K^{\prime} \) in ARPES. Based on this strong electronic similarity with graphene at the Brillouin zone boundary, this new structure is referred to as \textit{indenene}. An extensive theoretical analysis uncovers the emergence of an electronic honeycomb network based on triangularly arranged In \textit{p} orbitals. Due to strong atomic spin-orbit coupling and a comparably small substrate-induced in-plane inversion symmetry breaking this material system is rendered topologically non-trivial. In indenene, the topology is intimately linked to a bulk observable, i.e., the energy-dependent charge accumulation sequence within the surface unit cell, which is experimentally exploited in STS to confirm the non-trivial topological character. The band gap at \( K/K^{\prime} \), a signature of massive Dirac fermions, is estimated by ARPES to approximately 125 meV. Further investigations by X-ray standing wave, STM, and LEED confirm the structural properties of indenene. Thus, this thesis presents the growth and characterization of the novel quantum spin Hall insulator material indenene.},
  subject      = {Dreiecksgitter},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Imhof2023,
  author    = {Imhof, Stefan Michael},
  title     = {The effects of non-Hermiticity and non-linearity on topological phenomena investigated in electric networks},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32332},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-323329},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Topological phenomena known from solid state physics have been transferred to a variety of other classical and quantum systems. Due to the equivalence of the Hamiltonian matrix describing tight binding models and the grounded circuit Laplacian describing an electrical circuit we can investigate such phenomena in circuits. By implementing different Hermitian topological models general suggestions on designing those types of circuit are worked out with the aim of minimizing unwanted coupling effects and parasitic admittances in the circuit. Here the existence and the spatial profile of topological states as well as the band structure of the model can be determined. Due to the complex nature of electric admittance the investigations can be directly expanded to systems with broken Hermiticity. The particular advantages of the experimental investigation of non-exclusively topological phenomena by means of electric circuits come to light in the realization of non-Hermitian and non-linear models. Here we find limitation of the Hermitian bulk-boundary correspondence principle, purely real eigenvalues in non-Hermitian PT-symmetrical systems and edge localization of all eigenstates in non-Hermitian and non-reciprocal systems, which in literature is termed the non-Hermitian skin effect. When systems obeying non-linear equations are studied, the grounded circuit Laplacian based on the Fourier-transform cannot be applied anymore. By combination of the connectivity of a topological system together with non-linear van der Pol oscillators self-activated and self-sustained topological edge oscillations can be found. These robust high frequency sinusoidal edge oscillations differ significantly from low frequency relaxation oscillations, which can be found in the bulk of the system.},
  subject      = {Metamaterial},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Genheimer2023,
  author    = {Genheimer, Ulrich},
  title     = {The Photophysics of Small Organic Molecules for Novel Light Emitting Devices},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32031},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-320313},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {This PhD thesis addresses the photophysics of selected small organic molecules with the purpose of using them for efficient and even novel light sources. In particular, the studies presented focused on revealing the underlying exciton dynamics and determining the transition rates between different molecular states. It was shown how the specific properties and mechanisms of light emission in fluorescent molecules, molecules with phosphorescence or thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF), biradicals, and multichromophores can be utilized to build novel light-emitting devices. The main tool employed here was the analysis of the emitters' photon statistics, i.e. the analysis of the temporal distribution of emitted photons, during electrical or optical excitation. In the introduction of this work, the working principle of an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) was introduced, while Chapter 2 provided the physical background of the relevant properties of organic molecules and their interaction with light. In particular, the occurrence of discrete energy levels in organic semiconductors and the process of spontaneous light emission were discussed. Furthermore, in this chapter a mathematical formalism was elaborated with the goal to find out what kind of information about the studied molecule can be obtained by analyzing its photon statistics. It was deduced that the intensity correlation function g (2)(t) contains information about the first two factorial moments of the photon statistics and that higher order factorial moments do not contain any additional information about the system under study if the system is always in the same state after the emission of a photon. To conclude the introductory part, Chapter 3 introduced the utilized characterization methods including confocal microscopy of single molecules, time correlated single photon counting and temperature dependent photoluminescence measurements. To provide the background necessary for an understanding of for the following result chapters, in Section 4.1 a closer look was taken at the phenomenon of blinking and photobleaching of individual molecules. For a squaraine-based fluorescent emitter rapid switching between a bright and dark state was observed during photoexcitation. Using literature transition rates between the molecular states, a consistent model was developed that is able to explain the distribution of the residence times of the molecule in the bright and dark states. In particular, an exponential and a power-law probability distribution was measured for the time the molecule resides in tis bright and dark state, respectively. This behavior as well as the change in photoluminescence intensity between the two states was conclusively explained by diffusion of residual oxygen within the sample, which had been prepared in a nitrogen-filled glovebox. For subsequent samples of this work, thin strips of atomic aluminum were deposited on the matrices to serve as oxygen getter material. This not only suppressed the efficiency of photobleaching, but also noticeably prolonged the time prior to photobleaching, which made many of the following investigations possible in the first place. For emitters used in displays, emission properties such as narrow-band luminescence and short fluorescence lifetimes are desired. These properties can be influenced not only by the emitter molecule itself, but also by the interaction with the chosen environment. Therefore, before focusing on the photophysics of individual small organic molecules, Section 4.2 highlighted the interaction of a perylene bisimide-based molecular species with its local environment in a disordered polymethyl methacrylate matrix. In a statistical approach, individual photophysical properties were measured for 32 single molecules and correlations in the variation of the properties were analyzed. This revealed how the local polarity of the molecules' environment influences their photophysics. In particular, it was shown how an increase in local polarity leads to a red-shifted emission, narrower emission lines, broader vibronic splitting between different emission lines in combination with a smaller Huang-Rhys parameter, and a longer fluorescence lifetime. In the future, these results may help to embed individual chromophores into larger macromolecules to provide the chromophore with the optimal local environment to exhibit the desired emission properties. The next two sections focused on a novel and promising class of chromophores, namely linear coordinated copper complexes, synthesized in the group of Dr. Andreas Steffen at the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry at the University of W{\"u}rzburg. In copper atoms, the d-orbitals are fully occupied, which prevents undesirable metal-centered d-d⋆ states, which tend to lie low in energy and recombine non-radiatively. Simultaneously, the copper atom provides a flexible coordination geometry, while complexes in their linear form are expected to exhibit the least amount of excited state distortions. Depending on the chosen ligands, these copper complexes can exhibit phosphorescence as well as temperature activated delayed fluorescence. In Section 4.3, a phosphorescent copper complex with a chlorine atom and a 1-(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-3,3,5,5-tetramethyl-2-pyrrolidine-ylidene- ligand was tested for its suitability as an optically active material in an OLED. For this purpose, an OLED with a polyspirobifluorene-based copolymer matrix and the dopant at a concentration of 20 wt\% was electrically excited. Deconvolution of the emission spectrum in contributions from the matrix and the dopant revealed that 60 \% of the OLEDs emission was due to the copper complex. It was also shown that the shape of the emission spectrum of the copper complex remains unchanged upon incorporation into the OLED, but is red-shifted by about 233 meV. In Section 4.4, a second copper complex exhibiting thermally activated delayed fluorescence was analyzed. This complex comprised a carbazolate as well as a 2-(2,6- diisopropyl)-phenyl-1,1-diphenyl-isoindol-2-ium-3-ide ligand and was examined in the solid state and at the single-molecule level, where single photon emission was recorded up to an intensity of 78'000 counts per second. The evaluation of the second-order autocorrelation function of the emitted light proved an efficient transition between singlet and triplet excited states on the picosecond time scale. In the solid state, the temperature- dependent fluorescence decay of the complex was analyzed after pulsed photoexcitation in the temperature range between 300 K and 5 K. From these measurements, a small singlet-triplet energy gap of only 65 meV and a triplet sublevel splitting of 3.0 meV were derived. The transition rates between molecular states could also be determined. Here, the fast singlet decay time of τS1 = 9.8ns proved the efficient thermally activated delayed fluorescence process, which was demonstrated for the first time for this new class of copper(I) complexes thus. While the use of thermally activated delayed fluorescence is a potential way to harness otherwise long-living dark triplet states, radicals completely avoid dark triplet states. However, this usually comes with the huge drawback of the molecules being chemically unstable. Therefore, two chemically stable biradical species were synthesized in the framework of the DFG research training school GRK 2112 on Molecular biradicals: structure, properties and reactivity, by Yohei Hattori in the group of Prof. Dr. Christoph Lambert and Rodger Rausch in the group of Prof. Dr. Frank W{\"u}rthner at the Institute of Organic Chemistry at the University of W{\"u}rzburg, respectively. In Section 4.5, it was investigated how these molecules can be used in OLEDs. In the first isoindigo based biradical (6,6'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-phenoxyl)-1,1'-bis(2- ethylhexyl)-[3,3'-biindolinyl-idene]-2,2'-dione) two tert-butyl moieties kinetically block chemical reactions at the place of the lone electrons and an electron-withdrawing core shifts the electron density into the center of the chromophore. With these properties, it was possible to realize a poly(p-phenylene vinylene) copolymer based OLED doped with the biradical and to observe luminescence during optical as well as electrical excitation. Analyzing shapes of the photo- and electroluminescence spectra at different doping concentrations, F{\"o}rster resonance energy transfer was determined to be the dominant transition mechanism for excitons from the matrix to the biradical dopants. Likewise, OLEDs could be realized with the second diphenylmethylpyridine based birad- ical (4-(5-(bis(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)methyl)-4,6-dichloropyridin-2-yl)-N-(4-(5-(bis(2,4,6- -trichlorophenyl)methyl)-4,6-dichloropyridin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(4-methoxyphenyl)aniline) as dopant. In this biradical, chlorinated diphenylmethyl groups protect the two unpaired electrons. Photo- and electroluminescence spectra showed an emission in the near in- frared spectral range between 750 nm and 1000 nm. Also, F{\"o}rster resonance energy trans- fer was the dominant energy transfer mechanism with an transfer efficiency close to 100 \% even at doping concentrations of only 5 wt\%. In addition to demonstrating the working OLEDs based in biradicals, the detection of luminescence of the two biradical species in devices also constitutes an important step toward making use of experimental techniques such as optically detected electron spin resonance, which could provide information about the electronic states of the emitter and their spin manifold during OLED operation. Another class of emitters studied are molecules in which several chromophores are co- valently linked to form a macrocyclic system. The properties of these multichromophores were highlighted in Section 4.6. Here, it was analyzed how the photophysical behavior of the molecules is affected by the covalent linking, which determines the interaction be- tween the chromophores. The first multichromophore, 2,2'-ditetracene, was synthesized by Lena Ross in the group of Prof. Dr. Anke Kr{\"u}ger at the Institute of Organic Chemistry at the University of W{\"u}rzburg and was analyzed in this work both at the single-molecule level and in its aggregated crystalline form. While the single crystals were purified and grown in a vertical sublimation oven, the samples for the single molecule studies were prepared in matrices of amorphous polymethyl methacrylate and crystalline anthracene. Tetracene was analyzed concurrently to evaluate the effects of covalent linking. In samples where the distance between two molecules is sufficiently large, tetracene and 2,2'-ditracene show matching emission profiles with the only difference in the Franck-Condon factors and a de- creased photoluminescence decay time constant from 14 ns for tetracene to 5 ns for 2,2'- ditracene, which can be attributed to the increased density of the vibrational modes in 2,2'-ditracene. Evaluation of the photon statistics of individual 2,2'-ditracene molecules however showed that the system does not behave as two individual chromophores but as a collective state, preserving the spectral properties of the two tetracene chromophores. Complementary calculations performed by Marian Deutsch in the group of Prof. Dr. Bernd Engels at the Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of W{\"u}rzburg helped to understand the processes in the materials and could show that the electronic and vibronic modes of 2,2'-ditracene are superpositions of the modes occurring in tetracene. In contrast, single-crystalline 2,2'-ditetracene behaves significantly different than tetracene, namely exhibiting a red shift in photoluminescence of 150 meV, caused by an altered crys- talline packing that lowers the S1-state energy level. Temperature-dependent photolu- minescence measurements revealed a rich emission pattern from 2,2'-ditetracene single crystals. The mechanisms behind this were unraveled using photoluminescence lifetime density analysis in different spectral regions of the emission spectrum and at different tem- peratures. An excimer state was identified that is located about 5 meV below the S1-state, separated by a 1 meV barrier, and which can decay to the ground state with a time constant of 9 ns. Also, as the S1-state energy level is lowered below the E(S1) ≥ 2 ×E(T1) threshold, singlet fission is suppressed in 2,2'-ditetracene in contrast to tetracene. Therefore, at low temperatures, photoluminescence is enhanced by a factor of 46, which could make 2,2'- ditetracene a useful material for future applications in devices such as OLEDs or lasers. The second multichromophore species, para-xylylene bridged perylene bisimide macrocycles, were synthesized by Peter Spenst in the group of Prof. Dr. Frank W{\"u}rthner at the Institute of Organic Chemistry at the University of W{\"u}rzburg, by linking three and four perylene bisimides, respectively. To reveal the exciton dynamics in these macrocycles, highly diluted monomers as well as trimers and tetramers were doped into matrices of polymethyl methacrylate to create thin films in which individual macrocycles could be analyzed. The emission spectra of the macrocycles remained identical to those of the monomers, indicating weak coupling between the chromophores. Single photon emission could be verified for monomers as well as macrocycles, as exciton-exciton annihilation processes suppress the simultaneous emission of two photons from one macrocycle. Nevertheless, the proof of the occurrence of a doubly excited state was obtained by excitation power dependent photon statistics measurements. The formalism developed in the theory part of this thesis for calculating the photon statistics of multichromophore systems was used here to find a theoretical model that matches the experimental results. The main features of this model are a doubly excited state, fast singlet-singlet annihilation, and an efficient transition from the doubly excited state to a dark triplet state. The occurrence of triplet-triplet annihilation was demonstrated in a subsequent experiment in which the macrocycles were excited at a laser intensity well above the saturation intensity of the monomer species. In contrast to the monomers, the trimers and tetramers exhibited neither a complete dark state nor saturation of photoluminescence. Both processes, efficient singlet-singlet and triplet-triplet annihilation make perylene bisimide macrocycles exceptionally bright single photon emitters. These advantages were utilized to realize a room temperature electrically driven fluorescent single photon source. For this purpose, OLEDs were fabricated using polyvinylcarbazole and 2-tert-butylphenyl-5-biphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol blends as a host material for perylene bisimide trimers. Photon antibunching could be observed in both optically and electrically driven devices, representing the first demonstration of electrically driven single photon sources using fluorescent emitters at room temperature. As expected from the previous optical experiments, the electroluminescence of the molecules was exceptionally bright, emitting about 105 photons per second, which could be seen even by eye under the microscope. Finally, in the last section 4.7 of this thesis, two additional measurement schemes were proposed as an alternative to the measurement of the second-order correlation function g (2)(t) of single molecules, which only provides information about the first two factorial moments of the molecules' photon statistics. In the first scheme, the g (3)(t) function was measured with three photodiodes, which is a consequential extension of the Hanbury Brown and Twiss measurement with two photodiodes. It was demonstrated how measuring the g (3)(t) function is able to identify interfering emitters with non-Poisson statistics in the experiment. The second setup was designed with an electro-optic modulator that repeatedly gen- erates photoexcitation in the form of a step function. The recording of luminescence transients for different excitation intensities yields the same results as the correspond- ing g (2)-functions measured on single emitters, both in their shape and in their depen- dence on excitation power. To demonstrate this concept, the TADF emitter TXO-TPA (2- [4-(diphenylamino)phenyl]-10,10-dioxide-9H-thioxanthen-9-one) was doped at a concen- tration of 10-4 wt\% in a mCP (1,3-Bis(N-carbazolyl)benzene) matrix. This concentration was low enough that TXO-TPA molecules did not interact with each other, but an ensem- ble of molecules was still present in the detection volume. The intramolecular transition rates between singlet and triplet states of TXO-TPA could be derived with an error of at most 5 \%. Other experimental techniques designed to obtain this information require ei- ther lengthy measurements on single molecules, where sample preparation is also often a challenge, or temperature-dependent fluorescence lifetime measurements, which require a cryostat, which in turn places constraints on the sample design used. In future, this ap- proach could establish a powerful method to study external factors influencing molecular transition rates. Overall, this thesis has introduced new molecular materials, revealed their photophys- ical properties, and demonstrated how they can be used to fabricate efficient and even novel light sources.},
  subject      = {Fotophysik},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Fischer2023,
  author    = {Fischer, Mathias},
  title     = {Transient Phenomena and Ionic Kinetics in Hybrid Metal Halide Perovskite Solar Cells},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32220},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-322204},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {The fact that photovoltaics is a key technology for climate-neutral energy production can be taken as a given. The question to what extent perovskite will be used for photovoltaic technologies has not yet been fully answered. From a photophysical point of view, however, it has the potential to make a useful contribution to the energy sector. However, it remains to be seen whether perovskite-based modules will be able to compete with established technologies in terms of durability and cost efficiency. The additional aspect of ionic migration poses an additional challenge. In the present work, primarily the interaction between ionic redistribution, capacitive properties and recombination dynamics was investigated. This was done using impedance spectroscopy, OCVD and IV characteristics as well as extensive numerical drift-diffusion simulations. The combination of experimental and numerical methods proved to be very fruitful. A suitable model for the description of solar cells with respect to mobile ions was introduced in chapter 4.4. The formal mathematical description of the model was transferred by a non-dimensionalization and suitable numerically solvable form. The implementation took place in the Julia language. By intelligent use of structural properties of the sparse systems of equations, automatic differentiation and the use of efficient integration methods, the simulation tool is not only remarkably fast in finding the solution, but also scales quasi-linearly with the grid resolution. The software package was released under an open source license. In conventional semiconductor diodes, capacitance measurements are often used to determine the space charge density. In the first experimental chapter 5, it is shown that although this is also possible for the ionic migration present in perovskites, it cannot be directly understood as doping related, since the space charge distribution strongly depends on the preconditions and can be manipulated by an externally applied voltage. The exact form of this behavior depends on the perovskite composition. This shows, among other things, that experimental results can only be interpreted within the framework of conventional semiconductors to a very limited extent. Nevertheless, the built-in 99 potential of the solar cell can be determined if the experiments are carried out properly. A statement concerning the type and charge of the mobile ions is not possible without further effort, while their number can be determined. The simulations were applied to experimental data in chapter 6. Thus, it could be shown that mobile ions make a significant contribution to the OCVD of perovskite solar cells. j-V characteristics and OCVD transients measured as a function of temperature and illumination intensities could be quantitatively modeled simultaneously using a single global set of parameters. By the simulations it was further possible to derive a simple experimental procedure to determine the concentration and the diffusivity of the mobile ions. The possibility of describing different experiments in a uniform temperaturedependent manner strongly supports the model of mobile ions in perovskites. In summary, this work has made an important contribution to the elucidation of ionic contributions to the (photo)electrical properties of perovskite solar cells. Established experimental techniques for conventional semiconductors have been reinterpreted with respect to ionic mass transport and new methods have been proposed to draw conclusions on the properties for ionic transport. As a result, the published simulation tools can be used for a number of further studies.},
  subject      = {Simulation},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Friedrich2023,
  author    = {Friedrich, Felix},
  title     = {Magnetic Excitations in Single and Coupled Atoms on Surfaces: From the Kondo Effect to Yu-Shiba-Rusinov States},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32069},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-320699},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Magnetic systems underlie the physics of quantum mechanics when reaching the limit of few or even single atoms. This behavior limits the minimum size of magnetic bits in data storage devices as spontaneous switching of the magnetization leads to the loss of information. On the other hand, exactly these quantum mechanic properties allow to use such systems in quantum computers. Proposals to realize qubits involve the spin states of single atoms as well as topologically protected Majorana zero modes, that emerge in coupled systems of magnetic atoms in proximity to a superconductor. In order to implement and control the proposed applications, a detailed understanding of atomic spins and their interaction with the environment is required. In this thesis, two different systems of magnetic adatoms coupled to metallic and superconducting surfaces are studied by means of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and spectroscopy: Co atoms on the clean Cu(111) were among the first systems exhibiting signatures of the Kondo effect in an individual atom. Yet, a recent theoretical work proposed an alternative interpretation of these early experimental results, involving a newly described many-body state. Spin-averaged and -polarized experiments in high magnetic fields presented in this thesis confirm effects beyond the Kondo effect that determine the physics in these Co atoms and suggest a potentially even richer phenomenology than proposed by theory. The second studied system are single and coupled Fe atoms on the superconducting Nb(110) surface. Magnetic impurities on superconducting surfaces locally induce Yu-Shiba-Rusinov (YSR) states inside the superconducting gap due to their pair breaking potential. Coupled systems of such impurities exhibit YSR bands and, if the bands cross the Fermi level such that the band structure is inverted, host Majorana zero modes. Using the example of Fe atoms on Nb(110), the YSR states' dependence on the adatom-substrate interaction as well as the interatomic YSR state coupling is investigated. In the presence of oxygen on the Nb surface, the adatom-substrate interaction is shown to be heavily modified and the YSR states are found to undergo a quantum phase transition, which can be directly linked to a modified Kondo screening. STM tips functionalized with CO molecules allow to resolve self-assembled one-dimensional chains of Fe atoms on the clean Nb(110) surface to study the YSR states' coupling. Mapping out the states' wave functions reveals their symmetry, which is shown to alter as a function of the states' energy and number of atoms in the chain. These experimental results are reproduced in a simple tight-binding model, demonstrating a straightforward possibility to describe also more complex YSR systems toward engineered, potentially topologically non-trivial states.},
  subject      = {Rastertunnelmikroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Gram2023,
  author    = {Gram, Maximilian},
  title     = {Neue Methoden der Spin-Lock-basierten Magnetresonanztomographie: Myokardiale T\(_{1ρ}\)-Quantifizierung und Detektion magnetischer Oszillationen im nT-Bereich},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32255},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-322552},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Entwicklung neuer, robuster Methoden der Spin-Lock-basierten MRT. Im Fokus stand hierbei vorerst die T1ρ-Quantifizierung des Myokards im Kleintiermodell. Neben der T1ρ-Bildgebung bietet Spin-Locking jedoch zus{\"a}tzlich die M{\"o}glichkeit der Detektion ultra-schwacher, magnetischer Feldoszillationen. Die Projekte und Ergebnisse, die im Rahmen dieses Promotionsvorhabens umgesetzt und erzielt wurden, decken daher ein breites Spektrum der Spin-lock basierten Bildgebung ab und k{\"o}nnen grob in drei Bereiche unterteilt werden. Im ersten Schritt wurde die grundlegende Pulssequenz des Spin-Lock-Experimentes durch die Einf{\"u}hrung des balancierten Spin-Locks optimiert. Der zweite Schritt war die Entwicklung einer kardialen MRT-Sequenz f{\"u}r die robuste Quantifizierung der myokardialen T1ρ-Relaxationszeit an einem pr{\"a}klinischen Hochfeld-MRT. Im letzten Schritt wurden Konzepte der robusten T1ρ-Bildgebung auf die Methodik der Felddetektion mittels Spin-Locking {\"u}bertragen. Hierbei wurden erste, erfolgreiche Messungen magnetischer Oszillationen im nT-Bereich, welche lokal im untersuchten Gewebe auftreten, an einem klinischen MRT-System im menschlichen Gehirn realisiert.},
  subject      = {Kernspintomografie},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Stuehler2023,
  author    = {St{\"u}hler, Rudolf Raul Albert},
  title     = {Growth and Spectroscopy of the Two-dimensional Topological Insulator Bismuthene on SiC(0001)},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32008},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-320084},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {A plethora of novel material concepts are currently being investigated in the condensed matter research community. Some of them hold promise to shape our everyday world in a way that silicon-based semiconductor materials and the related development of semiconductor devices have done in the past. In this regard, the last decades have witnessed an explosion of studies concerned with so called ''quantum materials'' with emerging novel functionalities. These could eventually lead to new generations of electronic and/or spintronic devices. One particular material class, the so called topological materials, play a central role. As far as their technological applicability is concerned, however, they are still facing outstanding challenges to date. Predicted for the first time in 2005 and experimentally verified in 2007, two-dimensional topological insulators (2D TIs) (a.k.a. quantum spin Hall insulators) exhibit the outstanding property of hosting spin-polarized metallic states along the boundaries of the insulating 2D bulk material, which are protected from elastic single-particle backscattering and give rise to the quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE). Owing to these peculiar properties the QSHE holds promise for dissipationless charge and/or spin transport. However, also in today's best 2D TIs the observation of the QSHE is still limited to cryogenic temperatures of maximum 100 K. Here, the discovery of bismuthene on SiC(0001) has marked a milestone towards a possible realization of the QSHE at or beyond room-temperature owing to the massively increased electronic bulk energy gap on the order of 1 eV. This thesis is devoted to and motivated by the goal of advancing its synthesis and to build a deeper understanding of its one-particle and two-particle electronic properties that goes beyond prior work. Regarding the aspect of material synthesis, an improved growth procedure for bismuthene is elaborated that increases the domain size of the material considerably (by a factor of ≈ 3.2 - 6.5 compared to prior work). The improved film quality is an important step towards any future device application of bismuthene, but also facilitates all further basic studies of this material. Moreover, the deposition of magnetic transition metals (Mn and Co) on bismuthene is investigated. Thereby, the formation of ordered magnetic Bi-Mn/Co alloys is realized, their structure is resolved with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and their pristine electronic properties are resolved with scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) and photoemission spectroscopy (PES). It is proposed that these ordered magnetic Bi-Mn/Co-alloys offer the potential to study the interplay between magnetism and topology in bismuthene in the future. In this thesis, a wide variety of spectroscopic techniques are employed that aim to build an understanding of the single-particle, as well as two-particle level of description of bismuthene's electronic structure. The techniques involve STS and angle-resolved PES (ARPES) on the one hand, but also optical spectroscopy and time-resolved ARPES (trARPES), on the other hand. Moreover, these experiments are accompanied by advanced numerical modelling in form of GW and Bethe-Salpeter equation calculations provided by our theoretical colleagues. Notably, by merging many experimental and theoretical techniques, this work sets a benchmark for electronic structure investigations of 2D materials in general. Based on the STS studies, electronic quasi-particle interferences in quasi-1D line defects in bismuthene that are reminiscent of Fabry-P{\´e}rot states are discovered. It is shown that they point to a hybridization of two pairs of helical boundary modes across the line defect, which is accompanied by a (partial) lifting of their topological protection against elastic single-particle backscattering. Optical spectroscopy is used to reveal bismuthene's two-particle elecronic structure. Despite its monolayer thickness, a strong optical (two-particle) response due to enhanced electron-hole Coulomb interactions is observed. The presented combined experimental and theoretical approach (including GW and Bethe-Salpeter equation calculations) allows to conclude that two prominent optical transitions can be associated with excitonic transitions derived from the Rashba-split valence bands of bismuthene. On a broader scope this discovery might promote further experiments to elucidate links of excitonic and topological physics. Finally, the excited conduction band states of bismuthene are mapped in energy and momentum space employing trARPES on bismuthene for the first time. The direct and indirect band gaps are succesfully extracted and the effect of excited charge carrier induced gap-renormalization is observed. In addition, an exceptionally fast excited charge carrier relaxation is identified which is explained by the presence of a quasi-metallic density of states from coupled topological boundary states of domain boundaries.},
  subject      = {Topologischer Isolator},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Lutter2023,
  author    = {Lutter, Fabian},
  title     = {Elementsensitive Bildgebung - Einsatz chromatischer Pixelarrays in R{\"o}ntgen nano-CT},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-31995},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-319955},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit der Weiterentwicklung und Charakterisierung des XRM-II nanoCT Systems, sowie dessen M{\"o}glichkeiten zur Materialtrennung und Elementbestimmung in der nano-Computertomographie. Beim XRM-II nanoCT System handelt es sich um ein R{\"o}ntgenmikroskop, welches in ein Rasterelektronenmikroskop integriert ist, und auf dem Prinzip der geometrischen Vergr{\"o}ßerung basiert. Neben zweidimensionalen Durchstrahlungsbildern ist dieses Mikroskop auch zur dreidimensionalen Bildgebung mittels Computertomographie f{\"a}hig. Der Ausgangspunkt f{\"u}r die Weiterentwicklung ist das XRM-II, mit welchem bereits Computertomographien im Nanometerbereich m{\"o}glich waren. Deren Aufnahmedauer liegt zwischen 14 und 21 Tagen, was das System trotz seiner hohen Aufl{\"o}sung wenig praktikabel macht. Durch eine Anpassung der Blendeneinstellungen am Rasterelektronenmikroskop konnte der Strahlstrom um den Faktor 40 erh{\"o}ht und damit die Aufnahmedauer auf 24 Stunden reduziert werden, wobei weiterhin eine zweidimensionale Aufl{\"o}sung von \(167 \pm 9\) nm erreicht wird. Durch die Trennung von Objekt- und Targetmanipulator lassen sich beide unabh{\"a}ngig und genauer bewegen, wodurch es m{\"o}glich ist selbst 50 nm große Strukturen abzubilden. Die Charakterisierung erfolgt sowohl f{\"u}r das komplette System als auch getrennt in die entscheidenden Komponenten wie Target und Detektor. F{\"u}r das R{\"o}ntgentarget werden Monte-Carlo Simulationen zur Brennfleckgr{\"o}ße, welche entscheidend f{\"u}r die erreichbare Aufl{\"o}sung ist, durchgef{\"u}hrt und mit Aufl{\"o}sungstests verglichen. Der R{\"o}ntgendetektor wird hinsichtlich seiner spektralen Aufl{\"o}sung {\"u}berpr{\"u}ft, welche haupts{\"a}chlich vom Charge Sharing Effekt beeinflusst wird. Die Charakterisierung des Gesamtsystems erfolgt durch den Vergleich mit einer h{\"o}her aufl{\"o}senden Bildgebungsmethode, der FIB Tomographie. Hierbei wird die gleiche Probe, ein Bruchst{\"u}ck einer CPU, mit beiden Methoden unter der Voraussetzung einer {\"a}hnlichen Aufnahmezeit (24 h) untersucht. In der nano-CT kann ein 12 mal gr{\"o}ßeres Volumen analysiert werden, was jedoch eine geringere r{\"a}umliche Aufl{\"o}sung als die FIB Tomographie mit sich bringt. Da die spektrale Aufl{\"o}sung des Detektors aufgrund des Charge Sharing begrenzt ist, lassen sich nur Materialien mit einem großen Unterschied in der Ordnungszahl mittels der Energieschwellen des Detektors trennen. Jedoch kann in Verbindung mit der geeigneten Wahl des Targetmaterials der Absorptionskontrast f{\"u}r leichte Materialien, wie beispielsweise \(SiO_2\) verbessert werden. Dar{\"u}ber hinaus ist es am XRM-II nanoCT m{\"o}glich, durch das integrierte EDX-System, Elemente in der Computertomographie zu identifizieren. Dies wird anhand eines Drei-Wegekatalysators und eines NCA-Partikel gezeigt.},
  subject      = {Computertomographie},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Armer2023,
  author    = {Armer, Melina Brigitte Melanie},
  title     = {High-Quality Lead-Free Double Perovskite Single Crystals and their Optical Properties},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32750},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-327503},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {The presented thesis deals with the investigation of the characteristic physical properties of lead-free double perovskites. For this purpose lead-free double perovskite single crystals were grown from solution. In order to assess the influence of growth temperature on tail states in the material, the crystals were studied using Photoluminescence Excitation (PLE) and Transmission measurements. Additionally, lead-free double perovskite solar cells and thin films were investigated to address the correlation of precursor stoichiometry and solar cell efficiency. In a last step a new earth abundant lead-free double perovskite was introduced and its physical properties were studied by photoluminescene and absorptance. Like this it was possible to assess the suitability of this material for solar cell applications in the future.},
  subject      = {Perowskit},
  language  = {en}
}