@phdthesis{Winterfeldt2006,
  author    = {Winterfeldt, Carsten},
  title     = {Generation and control of high-harmonic radiation},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-20309},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {High-harmonic generation provides a powerful source of ultrashort coherent radiation in the XUV and soft-x-ray range, which also allows for the production of attosecond light pulses. Based on the unique properties of this new radiation it is now possible to perform time-resolved spectroscopy at high excitation energies, from which a wide field of seminal discoveries can be expected. Since the exploration and observation of the corresponding processes in turn are accompanied by the desire to control them, this work deals with new ways to manipulate and characterize the properties of these high-harmonic-based soft-x-ray pulses. After introductory remarks this work first presents a comprehensive overview over recent developments and achievements on the field of the control of high-harmonic radiation in order to classify the experimental results obtained in this work. These results include the control of high-harmonic radiation both by temporally shaping and by manipulating the spatial properties of the fundamental laser pulses. In addition, the influence of the conversion medium and of the setup geometry (gas jet, gas-filled hollow fiber) was investigated. Using adaptive temporal pulse shaping of the driving laser pulse by a deformable mirror, this work demonstrates the complete control over the XUV spectrum of high harmonics. Based on a closed-loop optimization setup incorporating an evolutionary algorithm, it is possible to generate arbitrarily shaped spectra of coherent soft-x-ray radiation in a gas-filled hollow fiber. Both the enhancement and suppression of narrowband high-harmonic emission in a selected wavelength region as well as the enhancement of coherent soft-x-ray radiation over a selectable extended range of harmonics (multiple harmonics) can be achieved. Since simulations that do not take into account spatial properties such as propagation effects inside a hollow fiber cannot reproduce the experimentally observed high contrast ratios between adjacent harmonics, a feedback-controlled adaptive two-dimensional spatial pulse shaper was set up to examine selective fiber mode excitation and the optimization of high-harmonic radiation in such a geometry. It is demonstrated that different fiber modes contribute to harmonic generation and make the high extent of control possible. These results resolve the long-standing issue about the controllability of high-harmonic generation in free-focusing geometries such as gas jets as compared to geometries where the laser is guided. Temporal pulse shaping alone is not sufficient. It was possible to extend the cutoff position of harmonics generated in a gas jet, however, selectivity cannot be achieved. The modifications of the high-harmonic spectrum have direct implications for the time structure of the harmonic radiation, including the possibility for temporal pulse shaping on an attosecond time scale. To this end, known methods for the temporal characterization of optical pulses and high-harmonic pulses (determination of the harmonic chirp on femtosecond and attosecond time scales) were introduced. The experimental progress in this work comprises the demonstration of different setups that are in principle suitable to determine the time structure of shaped harmonic pulses based on two-photon two-color ionization cross-correlation techniques. Photoelectron spectra of different noble gases generated by photoionization with high-harmonic radiation reproduce the spin-orbit splitting of the valence electrons and prove the satisfactory resolution of our electron time-of-flight spectrometer for the temporal characterization of high harmonics. Unfortunately no positive results for this part could be achieved so far, which can probably be attributed mainly to the lack of the focusability of the high harmonics and to the low available power of our laser system. However, we have shown that shaping the high-harmonic radiation in the spectral domain must result in modifications of the time structure on an attosecond time scale. Therefore this constitutes the first steps towards building an attosecond pulse shaper in the soft-x-ray domain. Together with the ultrashort time resolution, high harmonics open great possibilities in the field of time-resolved soft-x-ray spectroscopy, for example of inner-shell transitions. Tailored high-harmonic spectra as generated in this work and shaped attosecond pulses will represent a multifunctional toolbox for this kind of research.},
  subject      = {Frequenzvervielfachung},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Walter2006,
  author    = {Walter, Dominik},
  title     = {Adaptive Control of Ultrashort Laser Pulses for High-Harmonic Generation},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-21975},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {The generation of high harmonics is an ideal method to convert frequencies of the infrared- or visible range into the soft x-ray range. This process demands high laser intensities that are nowadays supplied by femtosecond laser systems. As the temporal and spatial coherence properties of the laser are transferred during the conversion process, the generated high harmonics will propagate as a beam with high peak-brightness. Under ideal conditions the generation of soft-x-ray pulses shorter than one femtosecond is possible. These properties are exploited in many applications like time-resolved x-ray spectroscopy. The topic of this thesis is the generation and optimization of high harmonics. A variety of conversion setups is investigated (jet of noble gas atoms, gas-filled hollow-fiber, water microdroplets) and theoretical models present ideas to further enhance the conversion efficiency (using excited atoms or aligned molecules). In different setups the peak intensity of the fundamental laser pulses is increased by spectral broadening and subsequent temporal compression. This is achieved with the help of pulse shaping devices that can modify the spectral phase and therefore also the temporal intensity distribution of laser pulses. These pulse shaping devices are controlled by an evolutionary algorithm. With this setup not only adaptive compression of laser pulses is possible, but also the engineering of specific laser pulse shapes to optimize an experimental output. This setup was used to influence the process of high harmonic generation. It is demonstrated that the spectral distribution of the generated soft-x-ray radiation can be controlled by temporal pulse shaping. This method to tailor high harmonics is complemented by spatial shaping techniques. These findings demonstrate the realization of a tunable source of soft-x-ray radiation.},
  subject      = {Frequenzvervielfachung},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Pfeifer2004,
  author    = {Pfeifer, Thomas},
  title     = {Adaptive control of coherent soft X-rays},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-9854},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2004},
  abstract  = {The availability of coherent soft x-rays through the nonlinear optical process of high-harmonic generation allows for the monitoring of the fastest events ever observed in the laboratory. The attosecond pulses produced are the fundamental tool for the time-resolved study of electron motion in atoms, molecules, clusters, liquids and solids in the future. However, in order to exploit the full potential of this new tool it is necessary to control the coherent soft x-ray spectra and to enhance the efficiency of conversion from laser light to the soft x-ray region in the harmonic-generation process. This work developed a comprehensive approach towards the optimization of the harmonic generation process. As this process represents a fundamental example of \emph{light}--\emph{matter} interaction there are two ways of controlling it: Shaping the generating laser \emph{light} and designing ideal states of \emph{matter} for the conversion medium. Either of these approaches was closely examined. In addition, going far beyond simply enhancing the conversion process it could be shown that the qualitative spectral response of the process can be modified by shaping the driving laser pulse. This opens the door to a completely new field of research: Optimal quantum control in the attosecond soft x-ray region---the realm of electron dynamics. In the same way as it is possible to control molecular or lattice vibrational dynamics with adaptively shaped femtosecond laser pulses these days, it will now be feasible to perform real-time manipulation of tightly bound electron motion with adaptively shaped attosecond light fields. The last part of this work demonstrated the capability of the herein developed technique of coherent soft-x-ray spectral shaping, where a measured experimental feedback was used to perform a closed-loop optimization of the interaction of shaped soft x-ray light with a sulfur hexafluoride molecule to arrive at different control objectives. For the optimization of the high-harmonic-generation process by engineering the conversion medium, both the gas phase and the liquid phase were explored both in experiment and theory. Molecular media were demonstrated to behave more efficiently than commonly used atomic targets when elliptically polarized driving laser pulses are applied. Theory predicted enhancement of harmonic generation for linearly polarized driving fields when the internuclear distance is increased. Reasons for this are identified as the increased overlap of the returning electron wavefunction due to molecular geometry and the control over the delocalization of the initial electronic state leading to less quantum-mechanical spreading of the electron wavepacket during continuum propagation. A new experimental scheme has been worked out, using the method of molecular wavepacket generation as a tool to enhance the harmonic conversion efficiency in `pump--drive' schemes. The latter was then experimentally implemented in the study of high-harmonic generation from water microdroplets. A transition between the dominant laser--soft-x-ray conversion mechanisms could be observed, identifying plasma-breakdown as the fundamental limit of high-density high-harmonic generation. Harmonics up to the 27th order were observed for optimally laser-prepared water droplets. To control the high-harmonic generation process by the application of shaped laser light fields a laser-pulse shaper based on a deformable membrane mirror was built. Pulse-shape optimization resulted in increased high-harmonic generation efficiency --- but more importantly the qualitative shape of the spectral response could be significantly modified for high-harmonic generation in waveguides. By adaptive optimization employing closed-loop strategies it was possible to selectively generate narrow (single harmonics) and broad bands of harmonic emission. Tunability could be demonstrated both for single harmonic orders and larger regions of several harmonics. Whereas any previous experiment reported to date always produced a plateau of equally intense harmonics, it has been possible to demonstrate ``untypical'' harmonic soft x-ray spectra exhibiting ``switched-off'' harmonic orders. The high degree of controllability paves the way for quantum control experiments in the soft x-ray spectral region. It was also demonstrated that the degree of control over the soft x-ray shape depends on the high-harmonic generation geometry. Experiments performed in the gas jet could not change the relative emission strengths of neighboring harmonic orders. In the waveguide geometry, the relative harmonic yield of neighboring orders could be modified at high contrast ratios. A simulation based solely on the single atom response could not reproduce the experimentally observed contrast ratios, pointing to the importance of propagation (phase matching) effects as a reason for the high degree of controllability observed in capillaries, answering long-standing debates in the field. A prototype experiment was presented demonstrating the versatility of the developed soft x-ray shaping technique for quantum control in this hitherto unexplored wavelength region. Shaped high-harmonic spectra were again used in an adaptive feedback loop experiment to control the gas-phase photodissociation reaction of SF\$_6\$ molecules. A time-of-flight mass spectrometer was used for the detection of the ionic fragments. The branching ratios of particular fragmentation channels could be varied by optimally shaped soft x-ray light fields. Although in one case only slight changes of the branching ratio were possible, an optimal solution was found, proving the sufficient technical stability of this unique coherent soft-x-ray shaping method for future applications in optimal control. Active shaping of the spectral amplitude in coherent spectral regions of \$\sim\$10~eV bandwidth was shown to directly correspond to shaping the temporal features of the emerging soft x-ray pulses on sub-femtosecond time scales. This can be understood by the dualism of frequency and time with the Fourier transformation acting as translator. A quantum-mechanical simulation was used to clarify the magnitude of temporal control over the shape of the attosecond pulses produced in the high-harmonic-generation process. In conjunction with the experimental results, the first attosecond time-scale pulse shaper could thus be demonstrated in this work. The availability of femtosecond pulse shapers opened the field of adaptive femtosecond quantum control. The milestone idea of closed-loop feedback control to be implemented experimentally was expressed by Judson and Rabitz in their seminal work titled ``Teaching lasers to control molecules''. This present work extends and turns around this statement. Two fundamentally new achievements can now be added, which are ``Teaching molecules to control laser light conversion'' and ``Teaching lasers to control coherent soft x-ray light''. The original idea thus enabled the leap from femtosecond control of molecular dynamics into the new field of attosecond control of electron motion to be explored in the future. The \emph{closed}-loop approach could really \emph{open} the door towards fascinating new perspectives in science. Coming back to the introduction in order to close the loop, let us reconsider the analogy to the general chemical reaction. Photonic reaction control was presented by designing and engineering effective media (catalysts) and controlling the preparation of educt photons within the shaped laser pulses to selectively produce desired photonic target states in the soft x-ray spectral region. These newly synthesized target states in turn could be shown to be effective in the control of chemical reactions. The next step to be accomplished will be the control of sub-femtosecond time-scale electronic reactions with adaptively controlled coherent soft x-ray photon bunches. To that end a time-of-flight high-energy photoelectron spectrometer has recently been built, which will now allow to directly monitor electronic dynamics in atomic, molecular or solid state systems. Fundamentally new insights and applications of the nonlinear interaction of shaped attosecond soft x-ray pulses with matter can be expected from these experiments.},
  subject      = {Ultrakurzer Lichtimpuls},
  language  = {en}
}