@phdthesis{Halboth2018,
  author    = {Halboth, Florian},
  title     = {Building behavior and nest climate control in leaf-cutting ants: How environmental cues affect the building responses of workers of \(Atta\) \(vollenweideri\)},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-161701},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {The present work investigates the influence of environmental stimuli on the building behavior of workers of the leaf-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri. It focuses on cues related to the airflow-driven ventilation of their giant underground nests, i.e., air movements and their direction, carbon dioxide concentrations and humidity levels of the nest air. First, it is shown that workers are able to use airflow and its direction as learned orientation cue by performing learning experiments with individual foragers using a classical conditioning paradigm. This ability is expected to allow workers to also navigate inside the nest tunnels using the prevailing airflow directions for orientation, for example during tasks related to nest construction and climate control. Furthermore, the influence of carbon dioxide on the digging behavior of workers is investigated. While elevated CO2 levels hardly affect the digging rate of the ants, workers prefer to excavate at locations with lower concentrations and avoid higher CO2 levels when given a choice. Under natural conditions, shifting their digging activity to soil layers containing lower carbon dioxide levels might help colonies to excavate new or to broaden existing nest openings, if the CO2 concentration in the underground rises. It is also shown that workers preferably transport excavated soil along tunnels containing high CO2 concentrations, when carbon dioxide levels in the underground are elevated as well. In addition, workers prefer to carry soil pellets along outflow tunnels instead of inflow tunnels, at least for high humidity levels of the air. The material transported along tunnels providing outflow of CO2-rich air might be used by workers for the construction of ventilation turrets on top of the nest mound, which is expected to promote the wind-induced ventilation and the removal of carbon dioxide from the underground. The climatic conditions inside the nest tunnels also influence the structural features of the turrets constructed by workers on top the nest. While airflow and humidity have no effect on turret structure, outflow of CO2-rich air from the nest causes workers to construct turrets with additional openings and increased aperture, potentially enhancing the airflow-driven gas exchanges within the nest. Finally, the effect of airflow and ventilation turrets on the gas exchanges in Atta vollenweideri nests is tested experimentally on a physical model of a small nest consisting of a single chamber and two nest tunnels. The carbon dioxide clearance rate from the underground was measured depending on both the presence of airflow in the nest and the structural features of the built turrets. Carbon dioxide is removed faster from the physical nest model when air moves through the nest, confirming the contribution of wind-induced flow inside the nest tunnels to the ventilation of Atta vollenweideri nests. In addition, turrets placed on top of one of the tunnel openings of the nest further enhance the CO2 clearance rate and the effect is positively correlated with turret aperture. Taken together, climatic variables like airflow, carbon dioxide and humidity levels strongly affect the building responses of Atta vollenweideri leaf-cutting ants. Workers use these environmental stimuli as orientation cue in the nest during tasks related to excavation, soil transport and turret construction. Although the effects of these building responses on the microclimatic conditions inside the nest remain elusive so far, the described behaviors are expected to allow ant colonies to restore and maintain a proper nest climate in the underground.},
  subject      = {Verhalten},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Kaiser2014,
  author    = {Kaiser, Dorkas},
  title     = {Termites and ants in BURKINA FASO (WEST AFRICA): taxonomic and functional diversity along land-use gradients; ecosystem services of termites in the traditional ZA{\"I} SYSTEM},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-107001},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {The consequences of habitat change for human well-being are assumed to be especially extreme in Burkina Faso. The country is located in a highly drought-sensitive zone of West Africa, and small-scale subsistence farmers may be especially affected if losses of biodiversity lead to changes in ecosystem functioning; many depend on more or less degraded lands for agricultural production. The overall aim of the present thesis consequently was to characterize the functional traits of soil-organisms which are crucial for a productive and balanced soil environment in the study region - termites and ants. They are true ecosystem engineers whose activity alters the habitat. Through soil-turnover in the course of constructing biogenic structures of varying size and nature (mounds, nests, galleries, soil-sheetings, foraging-holes), they bioturbate huge amounts of soil masses and exert massive effects on soil structure, positively influencing the fertility, stability, aeration and water infiltration rate into soils; and they provide habitats for other species. In sub-Saharan Africa, ants and termites are the only active soil macrofauna during the long dry season; in the sub-Sahel zone of Burkina Faso, termites even represent the only active, quantitatively remarkable decomposers all year round. Since no information was available about the actual diversity of the focal arthropods, I divided the thesis in two main parts: In the first part, a baseline study, I assessed the local termite and ant fauna, and investigated their quantitative and qualitative response to changing habitat parameters resulting from increasing human impact ('functional response traits'). In the second and applied part, I addressed the impact of the biogenic structures which are important for the restoration of degraded soils ('functional effect traits'). Two traditional agricultural systems characteristic for the study region were selected. Each system represented a land-use intensification gradient comprising four distinct habitats now differing in the magnitude of human intervention but formerly having the same initial state. The first disturbance gradient, the temporal cross-section of a traditional soil water conservation technique to restore degraded heavily encrusted, barren soil named Za{\"i} in Ouahigouya (Yatenga province, sub-Sahel zone); the second disturbance gradient, an agriculture type using crop rotation and fallow as nutrient management techniques near Fada N'Gourma (Gourma province, North-Sudanese zone). No standard protocol existed for the assessment of termite and ant diversity in semi-arid (agro-) ecosystems; two widely accepted standard protocols provided the basis for the newly revised and combined rapid assessment protocol 'RAP': the ALL protocol for leaf litter ants of Agosti and Alonso (2000), and the transect protocol for termites in tropical forests of Jones and Eggleton (2000). In each study site, three to four replicate transects were conducted during the rainy seasons (2004—2008). The RAP-protocol turned out to be very effective to characterize, compare and monitor the taxonomic and functional diversity of termites and ants; between 70\% and 90\% of the estimated total species richness were collected on all levels (transects, habitats, regions). Together in both regions, 65 ant species (25 genera) and 39 termite species (13 genera) were collected. These findings represent the first records for Burkina Faso. The data indicate a high sensitivity of termites and ants to land-use intensification. The diversity strongly decreased with increasing anthropogenic impact in the North-Sudan region. In total, 53 ant species (23 genera) and 31 termite species (12 genera) were found. Very promising results concerning the recovery potential of the soil-arthropods' diversity were gathered in the Za{\"i} system. The diversity of both taxa strongly increased with increasing habitat rehabilitation - in total, 41 ant species (16 genera) and 33 termite species (11 genera) were collected. For both taxa significant differences could be noted in the shape of the density variations along the gradient. For instance termites: Fungus-growers showed the greatest adaptability to different management practices. The greatest variations between the habitats were observed in soil and grass-feeding termites. Whole functional groups were missing in heavily impacted habitats, e.g. soil-, grass-, and wood-feeders were absent in the degraded site in the sub-Sahel zone. Several environmental parameters could be identified which significantly explained a great part of the variations in the composition of the arthropods' communities; they indicate the importance of the habitats' structural complexity (vegetation structure) and concomitant effects on diurnal temperature and moisture fluctuations, the availability of food sources, and the soil-structure. The diversity of termites in the sub-Sahel region was strongly correlated with the crown-cover percentages, the topsoils' sand-content, and the availability of litter; in the North-Sudan region with the cumulated woody plant basal area, the topsoils' clay- and organic matter-content. The parameters identified for ant communities in the Za{\"i} system, were the height of trees, the topsoils' clay-content and air humidity; in the North-Sudan region the habitats' crown-cover percentages, the quantity of litter and again the height of trees. In the second part of the thesis, I first rapidly assessed the (natural) variations in the amount of epigeal soil-structures along the two disturbance gradients in order to judge the relative importance of termites and ants for soil-turnover. The results illustrated impressively that a) in all study sites, termites were the main bioturbators while ant structures were of minor importance for soil turn-over; b) earthworms and grass-feeding termites contributed significantly to soil turn-over in the more humid North-Sudan region; and c) the bioturbated soil mass varied between seasons and years, however, the relative importance of the different taxa seemed to be fairly constant. In the sub-Sahel zone, fungus-growing Odontotermes and Macrotermes species fully take over the important function of bioturbation, leading to the transport of huge amounts of fine-textured soil material to the surface; with increasing habitat restoration, coarse fragments decreased in the upper horizons and became concentrated deeper along the soil profile. Consequently, in the applied part, I concentrated on the bioturbation activity of fungus-growing termites in the four main stages of the Za{\"i} system: crusted bare soil (initial stage), millet field, young and old forest. In each of the four Za{\"i} sites nine experimental blocks (each comprising four plots of 1m2) were used to stimulate the foraging activity of fungus-growing termites with different, locally available organic materials (Aristida kerstingii hay, Bombax costatum wooden blocks, compost and a control without any organic amendment). The experiment was conducted twice for the duration of four weeks (rainy season 2005, dry season 2006). The plots were regularly checked and the increase of the area covered by sheetings chronologically followed. After four weeks a) all sheeting-soil was collected, air dried and separately weighed according to the different genera, and b) the foraging-holes were counted and their diameter measured. Additionally, c) ponded water infiltration was measured in selected plots, and d) the physicochemical properties of sheeting-soil were analyzed. In case of complete consumption of the offered hay during the experimental 4-weeks-duration, the same procedure (a, b) was followed before adding new hay to the respective plot. The comparison between the different plots, sites and seasons revealed clearly that hay was the most attractive bait; for each gram of hay removed, Odontotermes brought about 12 g soil to the surface, Macrotermes 4 g. Odontotermes was the only genus attracted by organic material to the degraded area, and was therefore the decisive primary physical ecosystem engineer in the Za{\"i} system, initiating the restoration process. The mass of soil bioturbated in the course of foraging increased strongly from the degraded, barren towards the most rehabilitated reforested site. Combining all 36 experimental plots per Za{\"i} stage, Odontotermes bioturbated 31.8 tons of soil per hectare and month dry season in the degraded area, and 32.4 tons ha-1 mon-1 in the millet fields; both genera moved 138.9 tons ha-1 mon-1 in the young and 215.5 tons ha-1 mon-1 in the old Za{\"i} forest. Few comparable figures were found in the literature. In northern Burkina Faso, both genera constructed 20 tons of sheetings ha-1 mon-1 after mulching with a straw-wood mixture (Mando \& Miedema 1997), and in Senegal, around 10 tons ha-1 mon-1 were moved in heavily foraged plots (Rouland et al. 2003). Within a site, soil turn-over and the number of foraging holes created was always highest in hay, followed by compost, then by wood and in the end control. The fungus-growers' foraging-activity was leading to an enormous increase in surface pore space - after one month of induced foraging activity in hay-plots, the median number of foraging-holes increased from 142 m-2 in the degraded site up to 921 m-2 in the old Za{\"i} forest. The creation of subterranean galleries and macropores significantly increased the water infiltration rate by a mean factor 2-4. Laboratory analyses revealed that sheeting-soil differed strongly from the respective control soil as well as between the seasons, the food-type covered, and the two genera. Odontotermes-sheetings differed in more parameters than Macrotermes-sheetings, and dry season sheetings differed in more parameters (and more strongly) than rainy season sheetings. In the present study, soil organic matter, carbon and nitrogen contents were significantly increased in all dry season sheetings; in the rainy season mainly in those built on compost. Texture analysis pointed out that both genera used topsoil and soil from deeper horizons in varying mixture ratios, thereby supporting findings of Jouquet et al. (2006). To summarize, the present thesis contributes to a better understanding of the functional response traits of termites and ants to changing environmental parameters resulting from increasing human impact. The RAP-protocol represents an easy-to-learn and very effective method to representatively characterize, compare and monitor the taxonomic and functional diversity of termites and ants. The experiment has provided conclusive evidence of the importance of the consideration of fungus-growing termites (particularly Odontotermes and Macrotermes species) when aiming to restore infertile, degraded and crusted soils and to maintain a sustainable agricultural production in the Sahel-Sudanese zone of West Africa.},
  subject      = {Termiten},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Ratzka2012,
  author    = {Ratzka, Carolin},
  title     = {Immune responses of the ant Camponotus floridanus towards pathogens and its obligate mutualistic endosymbiont Blochmannia floridanus},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-69350},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {Ants of the species Camponotus floridanus live in huge colonies composed of genetically identical or closely related animals, which should predispose them to an increased vulnerability towards infection by pathogens (Cremer et al. 2007). Therefore the question is how ants (or social insects in general) can nevertheless efficiently combat infections. In order to investigate the immune response of the ant C. floridanus, the present study initially focused on the identification of possible immune factors, encoded by the ant´s genome. By using the method "suppression subtractive hybridization" as well as by Illumnia sequencing technology, several immune-related genes could be identified. Among these were genes encoding proteins involved in pathogen recognition, signal transduction, antimicrobial activity, or general stress response. In accordance with the ant´s genome sequence (Bonasio et al. 2010), only three antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes could be identified in C. floridanus. The gene and cDNA sequences of these AMPs were established and their expression was shown to be induced by microbial challenge. Two different defensin genes (type 1 and 2) were characterized. A detailed characterization of the mRNA and gene sequence of the other AMP, a hymenoptaecin, revealed a special repeat structure. The C. floridanus hymenoptaecin has a signal and a pro-sequence followed by a hymenoptaecin-like domain and six directly repeated hymenoptaecin domains (HDs). Since each HD is flanked by two known processing sites, proteolytic processing of the precursor protein may generate several mature AMPs. Bioinformatical analyses revealed the presence of hymenoptaecin genes with similar multipeptide precursor structure in genomes of other ant species suggesting an evolutionary conserved important role of this gene in ant immunity. C. floridanus ants harbor the obligate intracellular bacterium, Blochmannia floridanus, in specialized cells (so-called bacteriocytes), which are intercalated between midgut cells as well as in ovaries of females (Blochmann 1882; Sauer et al. 2002; Schr{\"o}der et al. 1996). Ant hosts face the problem that on the one hand they have to maintain the beneficial symbiotic bacteria and on the other hand they need to raise an immune response against harmful pathogenic bacteria during an infection. It was investigated, if endosymbionts are actually detected by the host immune system. Injection of B. floridanus induced an immune response of its host C. floridanus, which was comparable to the one towards pathogens. This means that, despite the evolutionary established cooperation of the endosymbionts and their hosts, these bacteria are still recognized as „non-self" by the host immune system. This finding led to the question, if the ant immune system might be involved in regulation of the endosymbiont number in the midgut tissue in order to avoid their uncontrolled replication. During the holometabolous life cycle of the ant hosts the distribution of bacteriocytes and of Blochmannia endosymbionts is remarkably dynamic and peaks in late pupal stages, in which the entire midgut is transformed into a symbiotic organ (Stoll et al. 2010). It was hypothesized that hosts could regulate the number of endosymbionts present in their tissues via the innate immune system. A quantitative gene expression analysis of assumed symbiosis-relevant candidate genes revealed distinct expression patterns of some genes according to developmental stage and tissue. Moreover, the immune gene expression in response to bacterial challenge was investigated in the pupal stage. By an artificial immune-challenge of pupae it was confirmed that in fact the immune response of the endosymbiont-bearing midgut tissue differs from that of other body parts. The data support a key role for amidase peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), especially PGRP-LB, in endosymbiont tolerance and suggest an involvement of the lysosomal system in control of Blochmannia endosymbionts. In sum, this thesis provides a first description of the immune response of the ant C. floridanus. A comprehensive set of immune-relevant genes was determined. Especially, the identification and molecular characterization of the hymenoptaecin gene delivered new insights into the immune competence of ants in general. Moreover, first indications could be gathered for the involvement of the immune system in controlling the endosymbiont B. floridanus.},
  subject      = {Humorale Immunit{\"a}t},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Drescher2011,
  author    = {Drescher, Jochen},
  title     = {The Ecology and Population structure of the invasive Yelllow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-57332},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {The invasive Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes is a widespread tropical ant species which is particularly common in anthropogenically disturbed habitats in South-East Asia and the Indopacific region. Its native range is unknown, and there is little information concerning its social structure as a potential mechanism facilitating invasion as well as its ecology in one of the putative native ranges, South-East Asia. Using mitochondrial DNA sequences, I demonstrated that the majority of the current Indopacific colonies were likely introduced from South-East Asian populations, which in turn may have been introduced much earlier from a yet unidentified native range. By conducting behavioral, genetic and chemical analyses, I found that A. gracilipes supercolonies contain closely related individuals, thus resembling enlarged versions of monogynous, polydomous colonies of other ant species. Furthermore, mutually aggressive A. gracilipes supercolonies were highly differentiated both genetically and chemically, suggesting limited or even absent gene flow between supercolonies. Intranidal mating and colony-budding are most likely the predominant, if not the exclusive mode of reproduction and dispersal strategy of A. gracilipes. Consequently, a positive feedback between genetic, chemical and behavioral traits may further enhance supercolony differentiation though genetic drift and neutral evolution. This potential scenario led to the hypothesis that absent gene flow between different A. gracilipes supercolonies may drive them towards different evolutionary pathways, possibly including speciation. Thus, I examined one potential way by which gene flow between supercolonies of an ant species without nuptial flights may be maintained, i.e. the immigration of sexuals into foreign supercolonies. The results suggest that this option of maintaining gene flow between different supercolonies is likely impaired by severe aggression of workers towards allocolonial sexuals. Moreover, breeding experiments involving males and queens from different supercolonies suggest that A. gracilipes supercolonies may already be on the verge of reproductive isolation, which might lead to the diversification of A. gracilipes into different species. Regarding the ecological consequences of its potential introduction to NE-Borneo, I could show that A. gracilipes supercolonies may affect the local ant fauna. The ant community within supercolonies was less diverse and differed in species composition from areas outside supercolonies. My data suggest that the ecological dominance of A. gracilipes within local ant communities was facilitated by monopolization of food sources within its supercolony territory, achieved by a combination of rapid recruitment, numerical dominance and pronounced interspecific aggression. A. gracilipes' distribution is almost exclusively limited to anthropogenically altered habitat, such as residential and agricultural areas. The rate at which habitat conversion takes place in NE-Borneo will provide A. gracilipes with a rapidly increasing abundance of suitable habitats, thus potentially entailing significant population growth. An potentially increasing population size and ecological dominance, however, are not features that are limited to invasive alien species, but may also occur in native species that become 'pests' in an increasing abundance of anthropogenically altered habitat. Lastly, I detected several ant guests in supercolonies of A. gracilipes. I subsequently describe the relationship between one of them (the cricket Myrmecophilus pallidithorax) and its ant host. By conducting behavioral bioassays and analyses of cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) profiles, I revealed that although M. pallidithorax is attacked and consumed by A. gracilipes whenever possible, it may evade aggression from its host by a combination of supreme agility and, possibly, chemical deception. This thesis adds to our general understanding of biological invasions by contributing species-specific data on a previously understudied invasive organism, the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes. Introductions which may have occurred a long time ago may make it difficult to determine whether a given species is an introduced invader or a native pest species, as both may have pronounced ecological effects in native species communities. Furthermore, this thesis suggests that supercolonialism in invasive ants may not be an evolutionary dead end, but that it may possibly give rise to new species due to reproductive boundaries between supercolonies evoked by peculiar mating and dispersal strategies.},
  subject      = {Dem{\"o}kologie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Menzel2009,
  author    = {Menzel, Florian},
  title     = {Mechanisms and adaptive significance of interspecific associations between tropical ant species},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-37251},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Aggression between ants from different colonies or species is ubiquitous. Exceptions to this rule exist in the form of supercolonies (within a species) and interspecific associations (between species). Probably the most intimate interspecific association is the parabiosis, where two ant species live together in a common nest. They keep their brood separate but jointly use trails and often share food resources. Parabioses are restricted to few species pairings and occur in South American and Southeast Asian rainforests. While the South American parabioses have been studied, albeit poorly, almost nothing is known about their Southeast Asian counterparts. My PhD project focuses on Southeast Asian parabioses between the myrmicine Crematogaster modiglianii Emery 1900 and the considerably larger formicine Camponotus rufifemur Emery 1900. The two species frequently nest together in hollow trees in the tropical lowland rainforest of Borneo. The basic question of my PhD project is why these two species live together. I investigated both proximate and ultimate aspects of this question. For comparative purposes, I included studies on a trail-sharing association in the same habitat. On the proximate level, I investigated which mechanisms facilitate tolerance towards hetero-spe¬ci¬fic nestmates. Ants generally discriminate nestmates from non-nestmates via cuticular hydro¬carbons that function as colony recognition cues. I studied the specificity of nestmate recognition within and between the two parabiotic species. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), I analyzed the cuticular substances in both ant species to find potential differences to non-parabiotic species, and to estimate the substance overlap among the two species. A high substance overlap would e.g. suggest that interspecific tolerance is caused by chemical mimicry. Finally, bioassays were conducted to evaluate the function of different cuticular compounds. Interspecific tolerance in the two parabiotic species was species-specific but not colony-specific. Ca. rufifemur tolerated all Cr. modiglianii individuals, even those from foreign colonies, but strongly attacked workers of other Crematogaster species. Cr. modiglianii, in turn, tolerated Ca. rufifemur workers of certain foreign colonies but attacked those of others. Chemical analyses revealed two sympatric, chemically distinct Ca. rufifemur varieties ('red' and 'black') with almost no hydrocarbon overlap. Cr. modiglianii only tolerated foreign Ca. rufifemur workers if they belonged to the same chemical variety as their own Ca. rufifemur partner. It also attacked other, non-parabiotic Camponotus species. Thus, reciprocal interspecific tolerance was restricted to the species Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur frequently tolerated conspecific non-nestmates of the same chemical variety. Minor workers were more often tolerated than majors, possibly because they possess two to three times lower hydrocarbon quantities per body surface than majors. In contrast, Cr. modiglianii nearly always attacked conspecific non-nestmates. Both species possessed hydrocarbons with considerably higher chain lengths than congeneric, non-parabiotic ant species. Long-chain hydrocarbons are less volatile than shorter ones and thus harder to perceive. They may thus considerably facilitate interspecific tolerance. Moreover, up to 98\% of the cuticular hydrocarbons in Ca. rufifemur were methylbranched alkenes, which are highly unusual among insect cuticular hydrocarbons. Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur had almost no hydrocarbons in common, refuting chemical mimicry as a possible cause of interspecific tolerance. The only hydrocarbons common to both species were two methylbranched alkenes, which constituted 89\% of the 'red' Ca. rufifemur hydrocarbon profile and also occurred in those Cr. modiglianii colonies that lived together with this Ca. rufifemur variety. Cr. modiglianii presumably acquired these two compounds from its red Ca. rufifemur partner. Cr. modiglianii was significantly less aggressive towards foreign Cr. modiglianii workers that were associated with the same Ca. rufifemur variety than to those associated with the respective other one. Hence, this species seemed to use recognition cues acquired from its parabiotic partner. Apart from hydrocarbons, both species possessed a set of hitherto unknown substances on their cuticle. The quantitative composition of the unknown compounds varied between parabiotic nests but was similar among the two species of a nest. They are probably produced in the Dufour glanf of Cr. modiglianii and transferred to their Ca. rufifemur partner. Possible transfer mechanisms include interspecific trophallaxis and 'mounting behaviour', where Cr. modiglianii climbed onto Ca. rufifemur workers without being displaced. Although the composition of the unknown compounds greatly varied between nests, they did not function as nestmate recognition cues since both species used hydrocarbons for nestmate recognition. However, the unknown compounds significantly reduced aggression in Ca. rufifemur. The ultimate, i.e. ecological and evolutionary aspects of my PhD research deal with potential costs and benefits that Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur may derive from the parabiotic association, their interactions with other species, and population genetic analyses. Additional studies on a trail-sharing association between three other ant species deal with two possible mechanisms that may cause or facilitate trail-sharing. Whether parabioses are parasitic, commensalistic, or mutualistic, is largely unknown and depends on the costs and benefits each party derives from the association. I therefore investigated food competition (as one of the most probable costs), differentiation of foraging niches (which can reduce competition), and several potential benefits of the parabiotic way of life. Besides, I studied interactions between the ant species and the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium. The foraging niches of the two species differed regarding foraging range, daily activity pattern, and food preferences. None of the two species aggressively displaced its partner species from baits. Thus, interference competition for food seemed to be low or absent. For both ant species, a number of benefits from the parabiotic lifestyle seem possible. They include interspecific trail-following, joint nest defence, provision of nest space by the partner species, food exchange via trophallaxis, and mutual brood care. If an ant species follows another species' pheromone trails, it can reach food resources found by the other species. As shown by artificial extract trails, Ca. rufifemur workers indeed followed trails of Cr. modiglianii but not vice versa. Thus, Ca. rufifemur benefited from Cr. modiglianii's knowledge on food sources (informational parasitism). In turn, Cr. modiglianii seemed to profit from nest defence by Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur majors are substantially larger than Cr. modiglianii workers. Although Cr. modiglianii often effectively defended the nest as well, it seemed likely that this species derived a benefit from its partner's defensive abilities. In neotropical parabioses (ant-gardens), mutualistic epiphytes play an important role in providing nest space. The neotropical Camponotus benefits its Crematogaster partner by planting epiphyte seeds, for which Crematogaster is too small. Similarly, the Bornean parabioses often were inhabited by the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium (Barg.-Petr.) Merr (Cecropiaceae). P. cordifolium seedlings, saplings and sometimes larger indivi¬duals abundantly grew at the entrances of parabiotic nests. However, P. cordifolium provides no additional nest space and, apart from nutritive elaiosomes, perianths, and extrafloral nectar probably plays a less important role for the ants than the neotropical epiphytes. In conclusion, the parabiosis is probably beneficial to both species. The main benefits seem to be nest defence (for Cr. modiglianii) and interspecific trail-following (for Ca. rufifemur). However, Ca. rufifemur seems to be more dependent on its partner than vice versa. For both parabiotic species, I analyzed mitochondrial DNA of ants from different regions in Borneo. My data suggest that there are four genetically and chemically distinct, but closely related varieties of Camponotus rufifemur. In contrast, Crematogaster modiglianii showed high genetic differentiation between distant populations but was not differentiated into genetic or chemical varieties. This argues against variety-specific cocladogenesis between Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur, although a less specific coevolution of the two species is highly likely. In Bornean rainforests, trail-sharing associations of Polyrhachis (Polyrhachis) ypsilon Emery 1887 and Camponotus (Colobopsis) saundersi Emery 1889 are common and often include further species such as Dolichoderus cuspidatus Smith 1857. I investigated a trail-sharing association between these three species and studied two mechanisms that may cause or facilitate these associations: interspecific trail-following, i.e. workers following another species' pheromone trail, and differential inter¬specific aggression. In trail-following assays, D. cuspidatus regularly followed extract trails of the other two species, thus probably parasitizing on their information on food sources. In contrast, only few P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi workers followed hetero¬speci¬fic extract trails. Hence, the association between P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi cannot be ex¬plained by foragers following heterospecific trails. In this case, trail-sharing may originate from few scout ants that do follow heterospecific pheromone trails and then lay their own trails. Interspecific aggression among P. ypsilon, Ca. saundersi and D. cuspidatus was strongly asymmetric, Ca. saundersi being submissive to the other two species. All three species discriminated between heterospecific workers from the same and a distant trail-sharing site. Thus, it seems likely that the species of a given trail-sharing site habituate to one another. Differential tolerance by dominant ant species may be mediated by selective habituation towards submissive species, and thereby influence the assembly of trail-sharing associations.},
  subject      = {Ameisen},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Stoll2009,
  author    = {Stoll, Sascha},
  title     = {Funktionelle Analyse von Blochmannia floridanus, dem prim{\"a}ren Endosymbionten der Rossameise Camponotus floridanus},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-37238},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Ameisen der Gattung Camponotus beherbergen bakterielle Symbionten der Gattung Blochmannia in spezialisierten Zellen des Mitteldarms (Blochmann, 1882; Buchner, 1965; Sauer, 2000; Schr{\"o}der et al., 1996). Die Genomsequenzierung dieser Symbionten zeigte, dass Blochmannia, {\"a}hnlich den Symbionten von Blattl{\"a}usen, haupts{\"a}chlich Gene der Aminos{\"a}urebiosynthese beibehalten hat (Degnan et al., 2005; Gil et al., 2003). Die Relevanz dieser nahrungsaufwertenden Funktion konnte experimentell best{\"a}tigt werden (Feldhaar et al., 2007). Ein Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Aufkl{\"a}rung der dynamischen Interaktion der beiden Partner w{\"a}hrend des komplexen Lebenszyklus des holometabolen Wirtes. Fr{\"u}here Studien deuteten darauf hin, dass die Symbiose vor allem w{\"a}hrend der Larven- und Puppenphasen von Bedeutung sein k{\"o}nnte (Feldhaar et al., 2007; Wolschin et al., 2004; Zientz et al., 2006). Mit fluoreszenter in situ Hybridisierung (FISH) und konfokaler Laserscanning Mikroskopie konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Lokalisierung von B. floridanus w{\"a}hrend der wichtigsten Entwicklungsstadien aufgekl{\"a}rt werden. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Symbionten schon im ersten Larvenstadium in spezialisierten Zellen um den Darm angeordnet sind, aber in sp{\"a}teren Stadien nicht, wie bisher angenommen, auf diese Bakteriozyten beschr{\"a}nkt sind, sondern bis zum Schlupf der jungen Arbeiterinnen massiv andere Darmzellen infizieren. {\"U}bereinstimmend mit Bestimmungen der Zellzahl in den verschiedenen Wirtsstadien ist die Anzahl der Symbionten gegen Ende der Metamorphose am h{\"o}chsten. Die Symbiose degeneriert in sehr alten Arbeiterinnen, gut gef{\"u}llte Bakteriozyten werden jedoch noch monatelang beibehalten. Mit Macroarray- und qRT- PCR- basierten Transkriptomanalysen wurde die Expression der bakteriellen Gene in charakteristischen Entwicklungsstadien des Wirtes untersucht. Allgemein zeigen vor allem Gene f{\"u}r molekulare Chaperons und bestimmte bakterielle Grundfunktionen eine hohe Expression. Aber auch viele Gene, die m{\"o}glicherweise wichtige Funktionen in der Symbiose besitzen, wie die Biosynthese essentieller Aminos{\"a}uren und das Recycling von Stickstoffverbindungen, zeigen ein hohes absolutes Transkriptlevel. Zudem besteht eine positive Korrelation zwischen dem Expressionsniveau und dem GC- Gehalt der Gene, die in dem h{\"o}heren Selektionsdruck und damit einer geringeren Mutationsrate der essentiellen Gene begr{\"u}ndet liegt (Schaber et al., 2005). Durch Proteinanalysen konnte best{\"a}tigt werden, dass die Faktoren mit der h{\"o}chsten absoluten Transkription die dominanten Proteine der Symbionten darstellen. In den unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstadien zeigen viele Gene eine deutliche Dynamik, deren Ausmaß aber, verglichen mit freilebenden Bakterien, gering ist. Aus den Expressionsprofilen aufeinanderfolgender Gene lassen sich m{\"o}gliche Transkriptionseinheiten ableiten, die teilweise auch experimentell best{\"a}tigt wurden. Oftmals zeigen auch Gene, die nicht in Transkriptionseinheiten angeordnet sind, aber verwandten Stoffwechselwegen angeh{\"o}ren, {\"a}hnliche Muster. Dies deutet auf das Vorhandensein grundlegender Genregulations-mechanismen hin, obwohl im Genom von B. floridanus nur noch sehr wenige Transkriptionsfaktoren codiert sind (Gil et al., 2003). Auf {\"u}bergeordneter Ebene zeigt sich, dass bei Symbionten aus sp{\"a}ten Puppenstadien viele symbioserelevante Gene im Vergleich zu Genen des Grundmetabolismus eine erh{\"o}hte Expression zeigen. Dies betrifft besonders die Biosynthese aromatischer und verzweigter Aminos{\"a}uren, die in diesen Stadien vom Wirt in hoher Menge ben{\"o}tigt werden, w{\"a}hrend die internen Reserven gleichzeitig zur Neige gehen. Dies {\"a}ußert sich auch im deutlichen Abfallen der Speicherproteinmenge des Wirts gegen Ende der Puppenphase. Die festgestellte Ver{\"a}nderung der Symbiontenzahl {\"u}bertrifft das geringe Ausmaß der Genregulation um ein Vielfaches. Die Bakterien liegen in jedem Stadium polyploid mit bis zu 100 Genomkopien vor, dieser Polyploidiegrad bleibt jedoch w{\"a}hrend der gesamten Wirtsentwicklung weitestgehend konstant. Somit scheint die Kontrolle des Wirts {\"u}ber die bakterielle Vermehrung der entscheidende Faktor dieser Symbiose zu sein. Die verbleibenden regulatorischen F{\"a}higkeiten der Bakterien stellen m{\"o}glicherweise eine Feinjustierung von optimierten Produktionseinheiten dar, deren Anzahl nach den Bed{\"u}rfnissen des Wirtes ver{\"a}ndert wird. Insgesamt konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit neue Einblicke in das komplexe Zusammenleben von Blochmannia und Camponotus gewonnen werden, die zu einem besseren Verst{\"a}ndnis der biologischen Funktion und der grundlegenden Mechanismen dieser Symbiose f{\"u}hren. Eine der wichtigsten Fragestellungen nach dem Sinn einer nahrungsaufwertenden Symbiose f{\"u}r einen Nahrungsgeneralisten konnte mit starken Hinweisen auf eine stadienabh{\"a}ngige Relevanz der Symbiose beantwortet werden, die den enormen evolution{\"a}ren Erfolg dieser Ameisengattung erkl{\"a}ren k{\"o}nnte.\&\#8195;},
  subject      = {Intrazellul{\"a}re Symbiose},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Endlein2007,
  author    = {Endlein, Thomas},
  title     = {Haftung und Fortbewegung: Kontrollmechanismen von Adh{\"a}sionskr{\"a}ften bei Ameisen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-28985},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2007},
  abstract  = {Nat{\"u}rliche Haftsysteme {\"u}bertreffen technische Kleber in mehreren Aspekten: Sie haften auf nahezu allen Oberfl{\"a}chen, sind selbstreinigend und sind in ihrer Haftst{\"a}rke dynamisch kontrollierbar. F{\"u}r Tiere mit Haftorganen ist deren Kontrolle eine Grundvoraussetzung f{\"u}r effiziente Lokomotion. Wie k{\"o}nnen Tiere gut an Oberfl{\"a}chen haften und gleichzeitig schnell laufen? Wie werden Haftorgane kontrolliert, um auf rauen oder glatten Oberfl{\"a}chen senkrecht oder kopf{\"u}ber zu haften und wieder loszulassen? Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht am Beispiel vonWeberameisen (Oecophylla smaragdina), welche Kontrollmechanismen Insekten verwenden, um den Konflikt zwischen Haftung und Fortbewegung zu bew{\"a}ltigen. Weberameisen besitzen an ihren F{\"u}ßen zwischen den Krallen ein entfaltbares Haftorgan (Arolium), welches im Vergleich zu anderen Hymenopteren stark vergr{\"o}ßert ist. Ihre enormen Haftkr{\"a}fte (mehr als das 100-fache ihres K{\"o}rpergewichtes) werden haupts{\"a}chlich eingesetzt, um Bl{\"a}tter f{\"u}r ihren Nestbau in den Baumkronen zusammenzuziehen. Sie sind Meister der Haftung und gute L{\"a}ufer zugleich und eigneten sich daher sehr gut als Modellsystem. In der Arbeit wurde dieWechselwirkung von Haftung und Bewegung auf mehreren hierarchischen Ebenen untersucht, vom gesamten K{\"o}rper {\"u}ber die Beine bis zum Haftorgan selbst. Es zeigte sich, dass Kontrollmechanismen auf allen drei Ebenen vorliegen. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde durch Manipulationen an der Krallenziehersehne die komplexe innere Mechanik des Pr{\"a}tarsus aufgekl{\"a}rt. Es zeigte sich, dass die Bewegungen von Tarsus, Krallen und Arolium in einer koordinierten Reihenfolge erfolgten. Durch Amputationen der Krallenspitzen an lebenden Ameisen konnte best{\"a}tigt werden, dass die Entfaltung des Aroliums durch das Verhaken der Krallen auf rauen Oberfl{\"a}chen mechanisch eingeschr{\"a}nkt wird. Der Einsatz des Aroliums war auch abh{\"a}ngig von der Oberfl{\"a}chenorientierung. Weberameisen setzten ihr Haftorgan beim aufrechten Laufen {\"u}berhaupt nicht ein, beim Kopf{\"u}berlaufen auf glatten Oberfl{\"a}chen wurde dagegen nur ein Bruchteil der maximal m{\"o}glichen Haftkontaktfl{\"a}che entfaltet. Die Versuche zeigten, dass Ameisen die Entfaltung des Aroliums entweder aktiv, d. h. durch Kontraktion des Krallenziehermuskels, oder passiv durch Zugbewegungen des Tarsus graduell variieren. Beide Mechanismen werden von den Ameisen verwendet, um die ansonsten klein gehaltene Haftkontaktfl{\"a}che bei Bedarf (z. B. bei Zusatzbeladungen) zu vergr{\"o}ßern. Die passive Entfaltung ist von der neuromuskul{\"a}ren Kontrolle entkoppelt und unterliegt somit nicht den Zeitverz{\"o}gerungen von Reflexreaktionen. Durch pl{\"o}tzliche laterale Verschiebung der Laufoberfl{\"a}che durch einen Stoß konnte eine schlagartige Ausfaltung der Arolien ausgel{\"o}st werden, die wesentlich schneller ablief als alle bekannten Reflexreaktionen. Dies kann als Sicherheitsmechanismus interpretiert werden, womit sich die Ameisen bei starken Ersch{\"u}tterungen der nat{\"u}rlichen Laufsubstrate (Bl{\"a}tter) durchWindst{\"o}ße oder Regentropfen festhalten k{\"o}nnen. Sowohl Kraftmessungen an der Krallenziehersehne, welche die Kontraktion des Krallenziehermuskels nachahmten als auch Reibungskraftmessungen zur passiven Entfaltung des Aroliums zeigten, dassWeberameisen im Vergleich zu einer bodenlebenden Ameise ihre Haftorgane leichter entfalten konnten. Dies erleichtert es ihnen, ihre Haftorgane {\"u}ber lange Zeit im entfalteten Zustand zu halten, wie es beispielsweise beim Nestbau erforderlich ist. Mit Hilfe von dreidimensionalen Kinematikstudien konnte gezeigt werden, dass Weberameisen durch {\"A}nderungen des Beinwinkels zur Oberfl{\"a}che das Sch{\"a}lverhalten der Haftorgane beeinflussen. Ein flacherer Winkel verhinderte das Absch{\"a}len der Haftorgane w{\"a}hrend der Standphase oder beim Tragen von Zusatzlasten; ein steilerer Tarsus hingegen erleichterte das Absch{\"a}len w{\"a}hrend der Abl{\"o}sephase. Dieses Verhalten wurde mit dem Modell eines Klebebandes verglichen. Allerdings ver{\"a}nderten sich die Haftkr{\"a}fte in einem bestimmten Winkelbereich deutlich st{\"a}rker, als die Sch{\"a}ltheorie es vorhersagen w{\"u}rde. Die starken Unterschiede in der Haftkraft an dieser Schwelle sind jedoch biologisch sinnvoll und werden wahrscheinlich von den Ameisen verwendet, um schnell zwischen Haften und L{\"o}sen zu wechseln. Messungen der Bodenreaktionskr{\"a}fte zeigten einen weiteren Abl{\"o}semechanismus: W{\"a}hrend der Abl{\"o}sephase wird durch distales Schieben des Beines das Haftorgan entlastet und so eine passive R{\"u}ckfaltung des Aroliums erlaubt. Beide Abl{\"o}semechanismen (Sch{\"a}len und Entlasten) wurden f{\"u}r einzelne Beinpaare im unterschiedlichen Ausmaß von den Ameisen verwendet. Eine Umorientierung zur Schwerkraftrichtung, z. B. beim Kopf{\"u}berlaufen, hatte auch Einfluss auf das Laufmuster und die Beinstellung relativ zum K{\"o}rperschwerpunkt. Die Ameisen passten beim Kopfx {\"u}berlaufen ihren Gang so an, dass sie mehrere Beine gleichzeitig in Bodenkontakt hielten und langsamere und k{\"u}rzere Schritte machten. Entstandene Drehmomente beim Tragen von Zusatzlasten wurden durch gezielte {\"A}nderungen der Beinpositionen ausgeglichen. Meine Arbeit zeigt, dass Insekten die Oberfl{\"a}chenhaftung auf verschiedenen hierarchischen Ebenen mit Hilfe verschiedener Anpassungen kontrollieren und dabei elegant neuromuskul{\"a}re Steuerungen mit rein passiven Mechanismen vereinigen. Die hier f{\"u}r Weberameisen exemplarisch untersuchten Effekte sind von allgemeiner Bedeutung f{\"u}r alle Tiere, die sich mit Hilfe von Haftorganen fortbewegen. Ein Verst{\"a}ndnis der Mechanismen, mit denen Insekten Haftung dynamisch kontrollieren, k{\"o}nnte wichtige Anregungen f{\"u}r die Entwicklung von kletterf{\"a}higen Laufrobotern liefern.},
  subject      = {Ameisen},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Geissler2008,
  author    = {Geissler, Oliver},
  title     = {Der Informationsfluss bei der Futtersuche von Ameisen : Spezielle Kommunikationsstrategien von Blattschneiderameisen und nektarsammelnden Ameisen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-28878},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2008},
  abstract  = {Die komplexen Aktivit{\"a}tsmuster w{\"a}hrend der Futtersuche bei Ameisen sind kein Resultat einer einfachen Selbstorganisation mit starren Regeln sind, sondern diese Regeln werden vielmehr permanent durch den Informationsaustausch zwischen den Arbeiterinnen modifiziert. Die Furagier{\"o}kologie hat vor allem einen Einfluss auf die Rekrutierungsstrategie der Tiere. Blattschneiderameisen furagieren an großen und stabilen Nahrungsressourcen auf diese sie nach dem Auffinden sofort stark rekrutieren. Camponotus rufipes besucht hingegen Futterquellen, die in ihrer Ergiebigkeit schlecht vorhersagbar sind. Daher steigern die Tiere ihre Rekrutierungsintensit{\"a}t erst nachdem sie sich durch mehrmaliges Aufsuchen der Futterquelle von deren Best{\"a}ndigkeit {\"u}berzeugt haben.},
  subject      = {Nahrungserwerb},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Endler2006,
  author    = {Endler, Annett},
  title     = {Regulation of reproductive division of labor in the ant Camponotus floridanus : behavioral mechanisms and pheromonal effects},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-18872},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {A hitherto unresolved problem is how workers are prevented from reproducing in large insect societies. The queen informs about her fertility and health which ensures sufficient indirect fitness benefits for workers. In the ant Camponotus floridanus, I found such a signal located on eggs of highly fertile queens. Groups of workers were regularly provided with different sets of brood. Only in groups with queen eggs workers refrain from reproducing. Thus, the eggs seem to inform the workers about queen presence. The signal on queen eggs is presumably the same that enables workers to distinguish between queen and worker-laid eggs, latter are destroyed by workers. Queen and worker-laid eggs differ in their surface hydrocarbons in a similar way as fertile queens differ from workers in the composition of their cuticular hydrocarbons. When I transferred hydrocarbons from the queen cuticle to worker eggs the eggs were no longer destroyed, indicating that they now carry the signal. These hydrocarbons thus represent a queen signal that regulates worker reproduction in this species. But the signal is not present in all fertile queens. Founding queens with low egg-laying rates differ in the composition of cuticular hydrocarbons from queens with high productivity. Similar differences in the composition of surface hydrocarbons were present on their eggs. The queen signal develops along with an increasing fertility and age of the queen, and this is perceived by the workers. Eggs from founding queens were destroyed like worker eggs. This result shows that founding queens lack the appropriate signal. In these little colony foundations chemical communication of queen status may not be necessary to prevent workers from reproducing, since workers may benefit more from investing in colony growth and increased productivity of large colonies rather than from producing male eggs in incipient colonies. If the queen is missing or the productivity of the queen decreases, workers start laying eggs. There is some evidence from correlative studies that, under queenless conditions, worker police each other because of differences in individual odors as a sign of social status. It can be expressed as either aggressive inhibition of ovarian activity, workers with developed ovaries are attacked by nest-mates, or destruction by worker-laid eggs. I found that in C. floridanus workers, in contrast to known studies, police only by egg eating since they are able to discriminate queen- and worker-laid eggs. Workers with developed ovaries will never attacked by nest-mates. This is further supported by qualitative and quantitative differences in the cuticular hydrocarbon profile of queens and workers, whereas profiles of workers with and without developed ovaries show a high similarity. I conclude that workers discriminate worker eggs on the basis of their hydrocarbon profile, but they are not able to recognize egg-laying nest-mates. Improving our knowledge of the proximate mechanisms of the reproductive division of labor in evolutionary derived species like C. floridanus will help to understand the evolution of extreme reproductive altruism involving sterility as a characteristic feature of advanced eusocial systems.},
  subject      = {Camponotus floridanus},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Mody2003,
  author    = {Mody, Karsten},
  title     = {Patterns of arthropod distribution and determinants of arthropod assemblage composition in a natural West African savannah},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-6202},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2003},
  abstract  = {This study investigated patterns of arthropod community organisation and the processes structuring these communities on a range of different tree species in a natural West African savannah (Como{\´e} National Park, C{\^o}te d'Ivoire). It described and analysed patterns of arthropod distribution on the level of whole communities, on the level of multiple-species interactions, and on the level of individual insect species. Community samples were obtained by applying (i) canopy fogging for mature individuals of three tree species (Anogeissus leiocarpa, Burkea africana, Crossopteryx febrifuga) and (ii) a modified beating technique allowing to sample the complete arthropod communities of the respective study plants for medium-sized (up to 3 m) individuals of two other species (Combretum fragrans, Pseudocedrela kotschyi). General information on ant-plant interactions was retrieved from ant community comparisons of the mature savannah trees. In addition, ant-ant, ant-plant and ant-herbivore interactions were studied in more detail considering the ant assemblages on the myrmecophilic tree Pseudocedrela kotschyi. Herbivore-plant interactions were investigated on a multiple-species level (interrelationships between herbivores and Pseudocedrela trees) and on a species level (detailed studies of interrelationships between herbivorous beetles and caterpillars and the host tree Combretum fragrans). The studies on individual herbivore species were complemented by a study on an abundant ant species, clarifying not only the relationship between host plant and associated animal but allowing also to look at interactive (competitive) aspects of community organisation. The study demonstrated for the first time that (i) the structure of beetle communities on tropical trees can be strongly dependent on the host tree species, (ii) individual trees can host specific arthropod communities whose characteristic structure is stable over years and is strongly determined by the individual tree's attributes, (iii) ants can express a pronounced fidelity to single leaves as foraging area and can thereby determine distribution patterns of other ants, (iv) intraspecifically variable palatability of plants for insect herbivores can be stable over years and can influence the distribution of herbivores that can distinguish between individual hosts according to palatability and (v) intraspecific host plant change can positively affect fitness of herbivores if host plant quality is variable. In general, the present study contributes to our knowledge of anthropogenically unaltered processes affecting community assembly in a natural environment. The fundamental understanding of these processes is crucial for the identification of anthropogenic alterations and the establishment of sustainable management measures. The study points out the important role local factors can play for the distribution of organisms and thereby for community organisation. It emphasises the relevance of small scale heterogeneity of the abiotic and biotic environment to biodiversity and the need to consider these factors for development of effective conservation and restoration strategies.},
  subject      = {Savanne},
  language  = {en}
}