@phdthesis{Solvie2023,
  author    = {Solvie, Daniel Alexander},
  title     = {Molecular Mechanisms of MYC as Stress Resilience Factor},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-30539},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-305398},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. The underlying tumorigenesis is driven by the accumulation of alterations in the genome, eventually disabling tumor suppressors and activating proto-oncogenes. The MYC family of proto-oncogenes shows a strong deregulation in the majority of tumor entities. However, the exact mechanisms that contribute to MYC-driven oncogenesis remain largely unknown. Over the past decades, the influence of the MYC protein on transcription became increasingly apparent and was thoroughly investigated. Additionally, in recent years several publications provided evidence for so far unreported functions of MYC that are independent of a mere regulation of target genes. These findings suggest an additional role of MYC in the maintenance of genomic stability and this role is strengthened by key findings presented in this thesis. In the first part, I present data revealing a pathway that allows MYC to couple transcription elongation and DNA double-strand break repair, preventing genomic instability of MYC-driven tumor cells. This pathway is driven by a rapid transfer of the PAF1 complex from MYC onto RNAPII, a process that is mediated by HUWE1. The transfer controls MYC-dependent transcription elongation and, simultaneously, the remodeling of chromatin structure by ubiquitylation of histone H2B. These regions of open chromatin favor not only elongation but also DNA double-strand break repair. In the second part, I analyze the ability of MYC proteins to form multimeric structures in response to perturbation of transcription and replication. The process of multimerization is also referred to as phase transition. The observed multimeric structures are located proximal to stalled replication forks and recruit factors of the DNA-damage response and transcription termination machinery. Further, I identified the HUWE1-dependent ubiquitylation of MYC as an essential step in this phase transition. Cells lacking the ability to form multimers display genomic instability and ultimately undergo apoptosis in response to replication stress. Both mechanisms present MYC as a stress resilience factor under conditions that are characterized by a high level of transcriptional and replicational stress. This increased resilience ensures oncogenic proliferation. Therefore, targeting MYC's ability to limit genomic instability by uncoupling transcription elongation and DNA repair or disrupting its ability to multimerize presents a therapeutic window in MYC-dependent tumors.},
  subject      = {MYC},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Xu2022,
  author    = {Xu, Wenshan},
  title     = {Regulation of the DNA Damage Response by the Ubiquitin System},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-16006},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-160064},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {DNA damage occurs frequently during normal cellular progresses or by environmental factors. To preserve the genome integrity, DNA damage response (DDR) has evolved to repair DNA and the non-properly repaired DNA induces human diseases like immune deficiency and cancer. Since a large number of proteins involved in DDR are enzymes of ubiquitin system, it is critical to investigate how the ubiquitin system regulates cellular response to DNA damage. Hereby, we reveal a novel mechanism for DDR regulation via activation of SCF ubiquitin ligase upon DNA damage. As an essential step for DNA damage-induced inhibition of DNA replication, Cdc25A degradation by the E3 ligase β-TrCP upon DNA damage requires the deubiquitinase Usp28. Usp28 deubiquitinates β-TrCP in response to DNA damage, thereby promotes its dimerization, which is required for its activity in substrate ubiquitination and degradation. Particularly, ubiquitination at a specific lysine on β-TrCP suppresses dimerization. The key mediator protein of DDR, 53BP1, forms oligomers and associates with β-TrCP to inhibit its activity in unstressed cells. Upon DNA damage, 53BP1 is degraded in the nucleoplasm, which requires oligomerization and is promoted by Usp28 in a β-TrCP-dependent manner. Consequently, 53BP1 destruction releases and activates β-TrCP during DNA damage response. Moreover, 53BP1 deletion and DNA damage promote β-TrCP dimerization and recruitment to chromatin sites that locate in the vicinity of putative replication origins. Subsequently, the chromatin-associated Cdc25A is degraded by β-TrCP at the origins. The stimulation of β-TrCP binding to the origins upon DNA damage is accompanied by unloading of Cdc45, a crucial component of pre-initiation complexes for replication. Loading of Cdc45 to origins is a key Cdk2-dependent step for DNA replication initiation, indicating that localized Cdc25A degradation by β-TrCP at origins inactivates Cdk2, thereby inhibits the initiation of DNA replication. Collectively, this study suggests a novel mechanism for the regulation of DNA replication upon DNA damage, which involves 53BP1- and Usp28-dependent activation of the SCF(β-TrCP) ligase in Cdc25A degradation.},
  subject      = {DNS-Sch{\"a}digung},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Bankoglu2016,
  author    = {Bankoglu, Ezgi Eyl{\"u}l},
  title     = {Oxidative status and genomic damage in an obesity model},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-137566},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2016},
  abstract  = {Several cohort studies showed that obesity increases the risk of chronic disease such as T2DM, hypertension and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and various types of cancer. Different factors were described that might be involving in these diseases in obesity. Some of these suggested factors were chronic infection, elevated free fatty acids, increased ROS formation, mitochondrial dysfunction and raised NAPDH oxidase activity. Obesity is a multifactorial disease and it is very hard to distinguish between all of these factors. In this study, we wanted to focus on the association between obesity, oxidative stress and genomic damage in kidney, liver and colon, which are the most relevant organs for cancer risk according to the cohort studies. Our findings indicated elevated oxidative stress in kidney, liver and colon together with elevated lipid, RNA and DNA oxidation in the whole body. Additionally, we were able to show increased DNA damage in kidney, liver and colon. Since obesity has become an epidemic all over the world, possible therapeutic applications such as life style changes (diet and sport), pharmacological supplements and various type of surgeries are increasing. As a second question, we focused on the effect of weight loss, which is supplied either by Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery or by caloric restriction designed in a way to provide the same extent of weight loss, on oxidative stress and genomic damage. Our results indicated that weight loss either by gastric bypass surgery or by caloric restriction led to reduced oxidative stress and genomic damage in kidney, liver and colon. We could not find any difference between the weight loss methods, except the DNA oxidation and repair marker urinary 8-oxodG, which was still elevated after RYGB, but not after caloric restriction. It is known that hyperinsulinemia and in the long term T2DM are among the biggest concerns in obese individuals. Since we know the mutagenic potential of elevated insulin levels from previous data in our working group, the correlation between the highly mutagenic DNA DBSs marker, γ-H2AX and the plasma insulin level was tested and the findings indicated a positive correlation. In order to demonstrate the association between insulin-related oxidative stress and genomic damage, we used in vitro and in vivo models with Pten deficiency. In this part of study, the work was focused on liver. Pten is a known negative regulator of the PI3K/Akt pathway, which is responsible for the elevated NADPH oxidase activity and mitochondrial dysfunction through elevated insulin levels. Pten inhibition or deficiency were used to sensitize the system to insulin. Non-transformed immortalized human hepatocytes were used to show the mutagenic potential of elevated insulin and these in vitro data revealed once more the link between insulin signaling, elevated oxidative stress and genomic damage. Since the metabolic function of the liver is not only due to the extent of the hepatic insulin response but is also affected by systemic interactions, a whole-body Pten haplodeficient mouse model with an additional Pten+/-/Akt2-/- group was utilized for in vivo investigation of insulin-mediated toxicity. Our findings in this model suggested that Pten deficiency alone can cause an increase in oxidative stress. HFD alone was sufficient to increase the expression of HO-1 and genomic damage significantly. Moreover, the combination (whole-body Pten haplodeficient mice fed with HFD) showed significantly elevated oxidative stress and genomic damage in mouse liver. However, Akt2 knockout could only reduce the oxidative stress and DNA damage in high fat diet fed mice significantly. All these findings demonstrated that obesity can induce oxidative stress and genomic damage. Elevated insulin levels are associated with obesity-mediated oxidative stress and genomic damage. However, the underlying mechanisms are surely multifaceted and complicated. For example, Pten as oncogene might also induce other mechanisms besides the elevation of the PI3K/Akt pathway activity. In conclusion, it is clear that oxidative stress and DNA damage are linked to obesity and that weight loss can reduce these two factors. Since DNA-damage is associated with an elevated cancer risk, it might be logical to use an antioxidant therapy in obese individuals to reduce the side effects and oxidative stress dependent mutagenicity and cancer risk in these individuals. However, much more research will be needed to support this idea experimentally.},
  subject      = {{\"U}bergewicht},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Buechner2014,
  author    = {B{\"u}chner, Claudia Nadine},
  title     = {Single molecule studies of DNA lesion search and recognition strategies},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-111886},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {The integrity of our genome is continuously endangered by DNA damaging factors. Several cellular mechanisms have evolved to recognize and remove different types of DNA lesions. Despite the wealth of information on the three-dimensional structure and the catalytic mechanism of DNA repair enzymes, the essential process of target site search and identification remains more elusive. How can a small number of repair proteins find and detect the rare sites of damage rapidly and efficiently over an excess of millions of undamaged bases? To address this pivotal question in DNA repair, I focused on the central players from the two DNA damage excision repair pathways in my studies: nucleotide excision repair (NER) and base excision repair (BER). As examples for completely different approaches of damage search, recognition and verification, I compared the NER protein Xeroderma pigmentosum group D (XPD) with the BER proteins human thymine DNA glycosylase (hTDG) and human 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (hOgg1). In particular, the single molecule approach of atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging and complementary biochemical and biophysical techniques were applied. I established a simple, optimized preparation approach, which yields homogeneous and pure samples of long (several hundreds to thousands of base pairs) DNA substrates suitable for the AFM studies with DNA repair proteins. Via this sample preparation, a single target site of interest can be introduced into DNA at a known position, which allows separate analysis of specific protein-DNA complexes bound to the lesion site and nonspecific complexes bound to non-damaged DNA. The first part of the thesis investigates the XPD protein involved in eukaryotic NER. In general, the NER mechanism removes helix-distorting lesions - carcinogenic UV light induced photoproducts, such as cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) as well as bulky DNA adducts. The 5'-3' helicase XPD has been proposed to be one of the key players in DNA damage verification in eukaryotic NER, which is still a matter of hot debate. In the studies, I focused on XPD from the archaeal species Thermoplasma acidophilum (taXPD), which shares a relatively high sequence homology with the sequence of the human protein and may serve as a good model for its eukaryotic counterpart. Based on AFM experiments and accompanying DNA binding affinity measurements with the biosensor technology Biolayer Interferometry (BLI), a clear role of XPD in damage verification was deciphered. Specifically, the data suggested that the ATP-dependent 5'-3' helicase activity of XPD was blocked by the presence of damage leading to stalled XPD-DNA damage verification complexes at the lesion sites. Successful damage verification led to ATP-dependent conformational changes visible by a significant transition in DNA bend angles from ~ 50° to ~ 65° at the site of the bound protein. Remarkably, this DNA bend angle shift was observed both in the presence of ATP and ATPγs (non-hydrolyzable ATP analog) indicating that ATP-binding instead of ATP hydrolysis was sufficient to induce repair competent conformational changes of XPD. Most importantly, detailed protein binding position and DNA bend angle analyses revealed for the first time that XPD preferably recognizes a bulky fluorescein lesion on the translocated strand, whereas a CPD lesion is preferentially detected on the opposite, non-translocated strand. Despite the different recognition strategies for both types of damages, they share a common verification complex conformation, which may serve as a signal for the recruitment of further NER factors. In the second part of the thesis, AFM imaging and a 2-Aminopurine fluorescence-based base-flipping assay were combined to investigate damage search and recognition by DNA glycosylases in BER. Exemplarily, I chose to study hTDG as a representative of the vast glycosylase family. hTDG excises thymine and uracil from mutagenic G:T and G:U mispairs contributing to cancer and genetic disease. The AFM data suggested that hTDG uses the intrinsic flexibility of G:T and G:U wobble pairs for initial damage sensing, while scanning DNA as a search complex (SC, slightly bent DNA). Remarkably, hTDG has been indicated to continuously switch between the search and interrogation conformation (IC, stronger bent DNA) during damage search. In the IC, target bases are interrogated by extrahelical base flipping, which is facilitated by protein-induced DNA bending and enhanced DNA flexibility at mismatches. AFM and fluorescence analyses revealed that the flipped base is stabilized via hTDG's arginine finger. Correct target bases are perfectly stabilized within the enzyme's catalytic pocket resulting in prolonged residence time and enhanced excision probability. To test for the generalizability of the proposed hTDG damage search model to BER glycosylases, identical studies were performed with a second glycosylase, hOgg1. The data on hOgg1, which removes structurally more stable 8-oxoguanine lesions, supported the hypothesis developed for lesion recognition by hTDG as a common strategy employed by BER glycosylases},
  subject      = {Rasterionenmikroskop},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Eman2013,
  author    = {Eman, Maher Othman Sholkamy},
  title     = {In Vitro and In Vivo Analysis of Insulin-Induced Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-69274},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Hyperinsulinemia, a condition with excessively high insulin blood levels, is related to an increased cancer incidence. Diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, obesity and polycystic ovarian syndrome are the most common of several diseases accompanied by hyperinsulinemia. Since an elevated cancer risk especially for colon and kidney cancers, was reported for those patients, we investigated for the first time the induction of genomic damage by insulin mainly in HT29 (human colon cells), LLC-PK1 (pig kidney cells), HK2 (human kidney cells) and peripheral lymphocytes, and to confirm the genotoxicity of insulin in other cells from different tissues. To ascertain that the insulin effects were not only limited to permanent cell lines, rat primary colon, kidney, liver and fatty tissue cells were also studied. To connect the study and the findings to in vivo conditions, two in vivo models for hyperinsulinemia were used; Zucker diabetic fatty rats in a lean and diabetic state infused with different insulin concentrations and peripheral lymphocytes from type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. First, the human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT29) showed significant elevation of DNA damage using comet assay and micronucleus frequency analysis upon treatment with 5 nM insulin in standard protocols. Extension of the treatment to 6 days lowered the concentration needed to reach significance to 0.5-1 nM. Insulin enhanced the cellular ROS production as examined by the oxidation of the dyes 2´,7´-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCF-DA) and dihydroethidium (DHE). The FPG modified comet assay and the reduction of damage by the radical scavenger tempol connected the insulin-mediatedDNA damage to ROS production. To investigate the sources of ROS upon insulin stimulation, apocynin and VAS2870 as NADPH oxidase inhibitors and rotenone as mitochondrial inhibitor were applied in combination with insulin and all of them led to a reduction of the genomic damage. Investigation of the signaling pathway started by evaluation of the binding of insulin to its receptor and to the IGF-1 receptor. The results showed the involvement of both receptors in the signaling mechanism. Following the activation of both receptors, PI3K activation occurs leading to phosphorylation of AKT which in turn activates two pathways for ROS production, the first related to mitochondria and the second through activation of Rac1 , resulting in the activation of Nox1. Both pathways could be activated through AKT or through the mitochondrial ROS which in turn could activates Nox1. Studying another human colon cancer cell line, Caco-2 and rat primary colon cells in vitro confirmed the effect of insulin on cellular chromatin. We conclude that pathophysiological levels of insulin can cause DNA damage in colon cells, which may contribute to the induction or progression of colon cancer. Second, in kidney cells, insulin at a concentration of 5 nM caused a significant increase in DNA damage in vitro. This was associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the presence of antioxidants, blockers of the insulin and IGF-1 receptors, and a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K) inhibitor, the insulin mediated DNA damage was reduced. Phosphorylation of AKT was increased and p53 accumulated. Inhibition of the mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase related ROS production reduced the insulin mediated damage. In primary rat cells insulin also induced genomic damage. HK2 cells were used to investigate the mechanistic pathway in the kidney The signaling is identical to the one in the colon cells untill the activation of the mitochondrial ROS production, because after the activation of PI3K activation of Nox4 occurs at the same time across talk between mitochondria and Nox4 activation has been suggested and might play a role in the observed effects. In the in vivo model, kidneys from healthy, lean ZDF rats, which were infused with insulin to yield normal or high blood insulin levels, while keeping blood glucose levels constant, the amounts of ROS and p53 were elevated in the high insulin group compared to the control level group. ROS and p53 were also elevated in diabetic obese ZDF rats. The treatment of the diabetic rats with metformin reduced the DNA oxidation measured as 8-oxodG as well as the ROS production in that group. HL60 the human premyelocytic cells and cultured lymphocytes as models for the hemopoietic system cells showed a significant induction for DNA damage upon treatment with insulin. The diabetic patients also exhibited an increase in the micronucleus formation over the healthy individuals. In the present study, we showed for the first time that insulin induced oxidative stress resulting in genomic damage in different tissues, and that the source of the produced ROS differs between the tissues. If the same mechanisms are active in patients, hyperinsulinemia might cause genomic damage through the induction of ROS contributing to the increased cancer risk, against which the use of antioxidants as well as mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase inhibitors might exert protective effects with cancer preventive potential under certain conditions. Normal healthy human plasma insulin concentrations are in the order of 0.04 nM after overnight fasting and increase to less than about 0.2 nM after a meal. Pathophysiological levels can reach 1 nM and can stay above 0.2 nM for the majority of the daytime yielding condictions close to the insulin concentrations determined in the present study. Whether the observed effects also occur in vivo and whether they actually initiate or promote tumor formation remains to be determined. However, if proof of that can be obtained, our experiments with inhibitors indicate chances for pharmacological intervention applying antioxidants or enzyme inhibitors. It will not be the aim to reduce ROS in any case or as much as possible because ROS have now been recognized as important signaling molecules and participatants in immune defense, but a reduction to physiological levels instead of pathophysiological levels in the context of a disease associated with ROS overproduction might be beneficial.},
  subject      = {Insulin},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Rajaraman2011,
  author    = {Rajaraman, Gnana Oli},
  title     = {Oxidative stress: Role in genomic damage and disease},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-64869},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {Bei einem Ungleichgewicht zwischen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) und endogenen Antioxidantien (Glutathion (GSH), Superoxiddismutase (SOD), Katalase etc.) ist der oxidative Stress erh{\"o}ht, was zur Oxidation von Lipiden, Proteinen und DNA f{\"u}hrt. Obwohl auch oxidierte Lipide und Proteine mit steigendem Alter akkumulieren k{\"o}nnen, f{\"u}hren nur DNA-Oxidationen zu ver{\"a}nderter genomischer Information. Ein m{\"o}glicher Signalweg f{\"u}r gesteigerte ROS-Produktion ist die Aktivierung des Enzyms NADPH-Oxidase (NOX) und die damit verbundene Generierung von ROS durch viele endogene und exogene Substanzen. p47phox ist ein cytosolisches Protein, das eine wichtige Rolle bei der NOX-Aktivierung spielt. Angiotensin II (Ang II) ist ein Beispiel f{\"u}r eine endogene Verbindung, die {\"u}ber NOX-Aktivierung ROS produziert. Rosuvastatin ist ein Arzneistoff mit antioxidativen Eigenschaften (Hochregulation endogener Antioxidantien). Es geh{\"o}rt zur Gruppe der Cholesterinsenker und reduziert ausserdem erh{\"o}htes Auftreten des Angiotensin-II-Typ-1-Rezeptors (AT1R). Normalerweise ist oxidativer Stress im Alter und bei Alterskrankheiten (z. B. Parkinson-Krankheit) erh{\"o}ht. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war, mit Hilfe unterschiedlicher Modelle in vitro und in vivo die Rolle von DNA-Schaden durch NOX-vermittelte ROS zu untersuchen und den Einfluss von ROS auf den Alterungsprozess und auf Alterskrankheiten zu bestimmen.},
  subject      = {Oxidativer Stress},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Fazeli2010,
  author    = {Fazeli, Gholamreza},
  title     = {Signaling in the induction of genomic damage by endogenous compounds},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-55634},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are continuously generated in cells and are involved in physiological processes including signal transduction but also their damaging effects on biological molecules have been well described. A number of reports in the literature implicate excessive oxidative stress and/or inadequate antioxidant defense in the pathogenesis of cancer, atherosclerosis, chronic and age related disorders. Several studies have indicated that activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system can lead to the formation of ROS. Epidemiological studies have revealed higher renal cell cancer incidences and also higher cancer mortalities in hypertensive individuals. Recently, our group has shown that perfusion of the isolated mouse kidney with Ang II or treatment of several cell lines with Ang II leads to formation of DNA damage and oxidative base modifications. Here, we tried to scrutinize the pathway involved in genotoxicity of Ang II. We confirmed the genotoxicity of Ang II in two kidney cell lines of human origin. Ang II treatment led to the production of superoxide anions which we could hinder when we used the membrane permeable superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic TEMPOL. One of the enzymes which is activated in the cells after Ang II treatment and is able to produce ROS is NADPH oxidase. We demonstrated the activation of NADPH oxidase in response to Ang II by upregulation of its p47 subunit using RT-PCR. Also, pPhosphorylation of p47 subunit of NADPH oxidase after Ang II treatment was enhanced. Using two inhibitors we showed that NADPH oxidase inhibition completely prevents DNA damage by Ang II treatment. To differentiate between Nox2 and Nox4 isoforms of NADPH oxidase subunits in the genotoxicity of Ang II, we performed siRNA inhibition and found a role only for Nox4, while Nox2 was not involved. Next, we investigated PKC as a potential activator of NADPH oxidase. We showed that PKC becomes phosphorylated after Ang II treatment and also that inhibition of PKC hinders Ang II from damaging the cells. Our results from using several inhibitors of different parts of the pathway revealed that PKC activation in this pathway is dependent on the action of PLC on membrane phospholipids and production of IP3. IP3 binds to its receptor at endoplasmic reticulum (ER), opening a channel which allows calcium efflux into the cytoplasm. In this manner, both ER calcium stores and extracellular calcium cooperate so that Ang II can exert its genotoxic effect. PLC is activated by AT1R stimulation. We could also show that the genotoxicity of Ang II is mediated via AT1R signaling using the AT1R antagonist candesartan. In conclusion, here we have shown that Ang II is able to damage genomic damage in cell lines of kidney origin. The observed damage is associated with production of ROS. A decrease in Ang II-induced DNA damage was observed after inhibition of G-proteins, PLC, PKC and NADPH oxidase and interfering with intra- as well as extracellular calcium signaling. This leads to the following preliminary model of signaling in Ang II-induced DNA damage: binding of Ang II to the AT1 receptor activates PLC via stimulation of G-proteins, resulting in the activation of PKC in a calcium dependent manner which in turn, activates NADPH oxidase. NADPH oxidase with involvement of its Nox4 subunit then produces reactive oxygen species which cause DNA damage. Dopamine content and metabolism in the peripheral lymphocytes of PD patients are influenced by L-Dopa administration. The PD patients receiving a high dose of L-Dopa show a significantly higher content of dopamine in their lymphocytes compared to PD patients who received a low dose of L-Dopa or the healthy control. Central to many of the processes involved in oxidative stress and oxidative damage in PD are the actions of monoamine oxidase (MAO), the enzyme which is responsible for the enzymatic oxidation of dopamine which leadsing to production of H2O2 as a by-product. We investigated whether dopamine oxidation can cause genotoxicity in lymphocytes of PD patents who were under high dose L-Dopa therapy and afterward questioned the occurrence of DNA damage after dopamine treatment in vitro and tried to reveal the mechanism by which dopamine exerts its genotoxic effect. The frequency of micronuclei in peripheral blood lymphocytes of the PD patients was not elevated compared to healthy age-matched individuals, although the formation of micronuclei revealed a positive correlation with the daily dose of L-Dopa administration in patients who received L-Dopa therapy together with dopamine receptor agonists. In vitro, we describe an induction of genomic damage detected as micronucleus formation by low micromolar concentrations in cell lines with of different tissue origins. The genotoxic effect of dopamine was reduced by addition of the antioxidants TEMPOL and dimethylthiourea which proved the involvement of ROS production in dopamine-induced DNA damage. To determine whether oxidation of dopamine by MAO is relevant in its genotoxicity, we inhibited MAO with two inhibitors, trans-2-phenylcyclopropylamine hydrochloride (PCPA) and Ro 16-6491 which both reduced the formation of micronuclei in PC-12 cells. We also studied the role of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and dopamine type 2 receptor (D2R) signaling in the genotoxicity of dopamine. Inhibitors of the DAT, GBR-12909 and nomifensine, hindered dopamine-induced genotoxicity. These results were confirmed by treatment of MDCK and MDCK-DAT cells, the latter containing the human DAT gene, with dopamine. Only MDCK-DAT cells showed elevated chromosomal damage and dopamine uptake. Although stimulation of D2R with quinpirole in the absence of dopamine did not induce genotoxicity in PC-12 cells, interference with D2R signaling using D2R antagonist and inhibition of G-proteins, phosphoinositide 3 kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinases reduced dopamine-induced genotoxicity and affected the ability of DAT to take up dopamine. Furthermore, the D2R antagonist sulpiride inhibited the dopamine-induced migration of DAT from cytosol to cell membrane. Overall, the neurotransmitter dopamine causes DNA damage and oxidative stress in vitro. There are also indications that high dose L-Dopa therapy might lead to oxidative stress. Dopamine exerts its genotoxicity in vitro upon transport into the cells and oxidization oxidation by MAO. Transport of dopamine by DAT has the central role in this process. D2R signaling is involved in the genotoxicity of dopamine by affecting activation and cell surface expression of DAT and hence modulating dopamine uptake. We provided evidences for receptor-mediated genotoxicity of two compounds with different mechanism of actions. The involvement of these receptors in many human complications urges more investigations to reveal whether abnormalities in the endogenous compounds-mediated signaling can play a role in the initiation of new conditions like carcinogenesis.},
  subject      = {Angiotensin II},
  language  = {en}
}