@phdthesis{vonKistowski2019,
  author    = {von Kistowski, J{\´o}akim Gunnarsson},
  title     = {Measuring, Rating, and Predicting the Energy Efficiency of Servers},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-17847},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-178478},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Energy efficiency of computing systems has become an increasingly important issue over the last decades. In 2015, data centers were responsible for 2\% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, which is roughly the same as the amount produced by air travel. In addition to these environmental concerns, power consumption of servers in data centers results in significant operating costs, which increase by at least 10\% each year. To address this challenge, the U.S. EPA and other government agencies are considering the use of novel measurement methods in order to label the energy efficiency of servers. The energy efficiency and power consumption of a server is subject to a great number of factors, including, but not limited to, hardware, software stack, workload, and load level. This huge number of influencing factors makes measuring and rating of energy efficiency challenging. It also makes it difficult to find an energy-efficient server for a specific use-case. Among others, server provisioners, operators, and regulators would profit from information on the servers in question and on the factors that affect those servers' power consumption and efficiency. However, we see a lack of measurement methods and metrics for energy efficiency of the systems under consideration. Even assuming that a measurement methodology existed, making decisions based on its results would be challenging. Power prediction methods that make use of these results would aid in decision making. They would enable potential server customers to make better purchasing decisions and help operators predict the effects of potential reconfigurations. Existing energy efficiency benchmarks cannot fully address these challenges, as they only measure single applications at limited sets of load levels. In addition, existing efficiency metrics are not helpful in this context, as they are usually a variation of the simple performance per power ratio, which is only applicable to single workloads at a single load level. Existing data center efficiency metrics, on the other hand, express the efficiency of the data center space and power infrastructure, not focusing on the efficiency of the servers themselves. Power prediction methods for not-yet-available systems that could make use of the results provided by a comprehensive power rating methodology are also lacking. Existing power prediction models for hardware designers have a very fine level of granularity and detail that would not be useful for data center operators. This thesis presents a measurement and rating methodology for energy efficiency of servers and an energy efficiency metric to be applied to the results of this methodology. We also design workloads, load intensity and distribution models, and mechanisms that can be used for energy efficiency testing. Based on this, we present power prediction mechanisms and models that utilize our measurement methodology and its results for power prediction. Specifically, the six major contributions of this thesis are: We present a measurement methodology and metrics for energy efficiency rating of servers that use multiple, specifically chosen workloads at different load levels for a full system characterization. We evaluate the methodology and metric with regard to their reproducibility, fairness, and relevance. We investigate the power and performance variations of test results and show fairness of the metric through a mathematical proof and a correlation analysis on a set of 385 servers. We evaluate the metric's relevance by showing the relationships that can be established between metric results and third-party applications. We create models and extraction mechanisms for load profiles that vary over time, as well as load distribution mechanisms and policies. The models are designed to be used to define arbitrary dynamic load intensity profiles that can be leveraged for benchmarking purposes. The load distribution mechanisms place workloads on computing resources in a hierarchical manner. Our load intensity models can be extracted in less than 0.2 seconds and our resulting models feature a median modeling error of 12.7\% on average. In addition, our new load distribution strategy can save up to 10.7\% of power consumption on a single server node. We introduce an approach to create small-scale workloads that emulate the power consumption-relevant behavior of large-scale workloads by approximating their CPU performance counter profile, and we introduce TeaStore, a distributed, micro-service-based reference application. TeaStore can be used to evaluate power and performance model accuracy, elasticity of cloud auto-scalers, and the effectiveness of power saving mechanisms for distributed systems. We show that we are capable of emulating the power consumption behavior of realistic workloads with a mean deviation less than 10\% and down to 0.2 watts (1\%). We demonstrate the use of TeaStore in the context of performance model extraction and cloud auto-scaling also showing that it may generate workloads with different effects on the power consumption of the system under consideration. We present a method for automated selection of interpolation strategies for performance and power characterization. We also introduce a configuration approach for polynomial interpolation functions of varying degrees that improves prediction accuracy for system power consumption for a given system utilization. We show that, in comparison to regression, our automated interpolation method selection and configuration approach improves modeling accuracy by 43.6\% if additional reference data is available and by 31.4\% if it is not. We present an approach for explicit modeling of the impact a virtualized environment has on power consumption and a method to predict the power consumption of a software application. Both methods use results produced by our measurement methodology to predict the respective power consumption for servers that are otherwise not available to the person making the prediction. Our methods are able to predict power consumption reliably for multiple hypervisor configurations and for the target application workloads. Application workload power prediction features a mean average absolute percentage error of 9.5\%. Finally, we propose an end-to-end modeling approach for predicting the power consumption of component placements at run-time. The model can also be used to predict the power consumption at load levels that have not yet been observed on the running system. We show that we can predict the power consumption of two different distributed web applications with a mean absolute percentage error of 2.2\%. In addition, we can predict the power consumption of a system at a previously unobserved load level and component distribution with an error of 1.2\%. The contributions of this thesis already show a significant impact in science and industry. The presented efficiency rating methodology, including its metric, have been adopted by the U.S. EPA in the latest version of the ENERGY STAR Computer Server program. They are also being considered by additional regulatory agencies, including the EU Commission and the China National Institute of Standardization. In addition, the methodology's implementation and the underlying methodology itself have already found use in several research publications. Regarding future work, we see a need for new workloads targeting specialized server hardware. At the moment, we are witnessing a shift in execution hardware to specialized machine learning chips, general purpose GPU computing, FPGAs being embedded into compute servers, etc. To ensure that our measurement methodology remains relevant, workloads covering these areas are required. Similarly, power prediction models must be extended to cover these new scenarios.},
  subject      = {Benchmarking},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Herbst2018,
  author    = {Herbst, Nikolas Roman},
  title     = {Methods and Benchmarks for Auto-Scaling Mechanisms in Elastic Cloud Environments},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-164314},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {A key functionality of cloud systems are automated resource management mechanisms at the infrastructure level. As part of this, elastic scaling of allocated resources is realized by so-called auto-scalers that are supposed to match the current demand in a way that the performance remains stable while resources are efficiently used. The process of rating cloud infrastructure offerings in terms of the quality of their achieved elastic scaling remains undefined. Clear guidance for the selection and configuration of an auto-scaler for a given context is not available. Thus, existing operating solutions are optimized in a highly application specific way and usually kept undisclosed. The common state of practice is the use of simplistic threshold-based approaches. Due to their reactive nature they incur performance degradation during the minutes of provisioning delays. In the literature, a high-number of auto-scalers has been proposed trying to overcome the limitations of reactive mechanisms by employing proactive prediction methods. In this thesis, we identify potentials in automated cloud system resource management and its evaluation methodology. Specifically, we make the following contributions: We propose a descriptive load profile modeling framework together with automated model extraction from recorded traces to enable reproducible workload generation with realistic load intensity variations. The proposed Descartes Load Intensity Model (DLIM) with its Limbo framework provides key functionality to stress and benchmark resource management approaches in a representative and fair manner. We propose a set of intuitive metrics for quantifying timing, stability and accuracy aspects of elasticity. Based on these metrics, we propose a novel approach for benchmarking the elasticity of Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) cloud platforms independent of the performance exhibited by the provisioned underlying resources. We tackle the challenge of reducing the risk of relying on a single proactive auto-scaler by proposing a new self-aware auto-scaling mechanism, called Chameleon, combining multiple different proactive methods coupled with a reactive fallback mechanism. Chameleon employs on-demand, automated time series-based forecasting methods to predict the arriving load intensity in combination with run-time service demand estimation techniques to calculate the required resource consumption per work unit without the need for a detailed application instrumentation. It can also leverage application knowledge by solving product-form queueing networks used to derive optimized scaling actions. The Chameleon approach is first in resolving conflicts between reactive and proactive scaling decisions in an intelligent way. We are confident that the contributions of this thesis will have a long-term impact on the way cloud resource management approaches are assessed. While this could result in an improved quality of autonomic management algorithms, we see and discuss arising challenges for future research in cloud resource management and its assessment methods: The adoption of containerization on top of virtual machine instances introduces another level of indirection. As a result, the nesting of virtual resources increases resource fragmentation and causes unreliable provisioning delays. Furthermore, virtualized compute resources tend to become more and more inhomogeneous associated with various priorities and trade-offs. Due to DevOps practices, cloud hosted service updates are released with a higher frequency which impacts the dynamics in user behavior.},
  subject      = {Cloud Computing},
  language  = {en}
}