@article{RangerBiedermannPhuntumartetal.2018,
  author    = {Ranger, Christopher M. and Biedermann, Peter HW and Phuntumart, Vipaporn and Beligala, Gayathri U. and Ghosh, Satyaki and Palmquist, Debra E. and Mueller, Robert and Barnett, Jenny and Schultz, Peter B. and Reding, Michael E. and Benz, J. Philipp},
  title     = {Symbiont selection via alcohol benefits fungus farming by ambrosia beetles},
  series = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  volume    = {115},
  journal   = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  number    = {17},
  doi       = {10.1073/pnas.1716852115},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-224953},
  pages     = {4447-4452},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {Animal-microbe mutualisms are typically maintained by vertical symbiont transmission or partner choice. A third mechanism, screening of high-quality symbionts, has been predicted in theory, but empirical examples are rare. Here we demonstrate that ambrosia beetles rely on ethanol within host trees for promoting gardens of their fungal symbiont and producing offspring. Ethanol has long been known as the main attractant for many of these fungus-farming beetles as they select host trees in which they excavate tunnels and cultivate fungal gardens. More than 300 attacks by Xylosandrus germanus and other species were triggered by baiting trees with ethanol lures, but none of the foundresses established fungal gardens or produced broods unless tree tissues contained in vivo ethanol resulting from irrigation with ethanol solutions. More X. germanus brood were also produced in a rearing substrate containing ethanol. These benefits are a result of increased food supply via the positive effects of ethanol on food-fungus biomass. Selected Ambrosiella and Raffaelea fungal isolates from ethanol-responsive ambrosia beetles profited directly and indirectly by (i) a higher biomass on medium containing ethanol, (ii) strong alcohol dehydrogenase enzymatic activity, and (iii) a competitive advantage over weedy fungal garden competitors (Aspergillus, Penicillium) that are inhibited by ethanol. As ambrosia fungi both detoxify and produce ethanol, they may maintain the selectivity of their alcohol-rich habitat for their own purpose and that of other ethanol-resistant/producing microbes. This resembles biological screening of beneficial symbionts and a potentially widespread, unstudied benefit of alcohol-producing symbionts (e.g., yeasts) in other microbial symbioses.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Lehenberger2022,
  author    = {Lehenberger, Maximilian},
  title     = {Ecology and Evolution of symbiotic microbial communities in fungus farming ambrosia beetles},
  publisher = {Fungal Ecology, Frontiers in Microbiology, Deutsche Gesellschaft f{\"u}r allgemeine und angewandte Entomologie},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-24154},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-241546},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Within my PhD project I gained several novel insights into the poorly investigated symbiotic world of fungus farming ambrosia beetles and their bark beetle ancestors, where I especially focused on physiological interactions and capabilities of associated fungal symbionts. Here, (i) I could confirm the association of mutualistic Phialophoropsis fungi with the ambrosia beetle genus Trypodendron and found hints for a possible new Phialophoropsis species in T. signatum and T. domesticum. Moreover, I could show that mutualistic fungi of Trypodendron ambrosia beetles are able to decompose major woody polysaccharides such as cellulose and xylan. Additionally, (ii) I provided the first images using micro-computed tomography (µCT) of the formerly unknown structure of the mycetangium of Trypodendron leave. (iii) I could confirm a general tolerance towards ethanol in mutualistic ambrosia beetle fungi, while antagonistic fungi as well as most examined fungal bark beetle associates (e.g. possibly tree-defense detoxifying species) were highly sensitive to even low concentrations of ethanol. Further, (iv) I found that natural galleries of ambrosia beetles are highly enriched with several biologically important elements (such as N, P, S, K, Mg) compared to the surrounding woody tissue and suggest that mutualistic fungi are translocating and concentrating elements from the immediate surrounding xylem to the beetles galleries. Furthermore, (v) I could show that various fungi associated with bark and ambrosia beetles (mutualists, possibly beneficial symbionts) are emitting several volatile organic compounds mostly within aliphatic and aromatic alcohols and esters, while non-mutualistic and free living species were generally emitting a lower number and amount of volatiles. Finally, especially bark and ambrosia beetle fungi were found to incorporate several amino acids, from which some are especially important for the production of certain volatile organic compounds. Amino acid content also indicated a higher nutritional value for certain species. Here, I propose that especially volatile organic compounds are widespread key players in maintaining various symbioses between fungi and beetles, as already proven by a recent study on the bark beetle Ips typographus (as well as for some other bark beetle-fungus symbioses, see summary in Kandasamy et al. 2016) and also suggested for ambrosia beetles.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{GrubbsSurupBiedermannetal.2020,
  author    = {Grubbs, Kirk J. and Surup, Frank and Biedermann, Peter H. W. and McDonald, Bradon R. and Klassen, Jonathan L. and Carlson, Caitlin M. and Clardy, Jon and Currie, Cameron R.},
  title     = {Cycloheximide-Producing Streptomyces Associated With Xyleborinus saxesenii and Xyleborus affinis Fungus-Farming Ambrosia Beetles},
  series = {Frontiers in Microbiology},
  volume    = {11},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Microbiology},
  doi       = {10.3389/fmicb.2020.562140},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-212449},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Symbiotic microbes help a myriad of insects acquire nutrients. Recent work suggests that insects also frequently associate with actinobacterial symbionts that produce molecules to help defend against parasites and predators. Here we explore a potential association between Actinobacteria and two species of fungus-farming ambrosia beetles, Xyleborinus saxesenii and Xyleborus affinis. We isolated and identified actinobacterial and fungal symbionts from laboratory reared nests, and characterized small molecules produced by the putative actinobacterial symbionts. One 16S rRNA phylotype of Streptomyces (XylebKG-1) was abundantly and consistently isolated from the galleries and adults of X. saxesenii and X. affinis nests. In addition to Raffaelea sulphurea, the symbiont that X. saxesenii cultivates, we also repeatedly isolated a strain of Nectria sp. that is an antagonist of this mutualism. Inhibition bioassays between Streptomyces griseus XylebKG-1 and the fungal symbionts from X. saxesenii revealed strong inhibitory activity of the actinobacterium toward the fungal antagonist Nectria sp. but not the fungal mutualist R. sulphurea. Bioassay guided HPLC fractionation of S. griseus XylebKG-1 culture extracts, followed by NMR and mass spectrometry, identified cycloheximide as the compound responsible for the observed growth inhibition. A biosynthetic gene cluster putatively encoding cycloheximide was also identified in S. griseus XylebKG-1. The consistent isolation of a single 16S phylotype of Streptomyces from two species of ambrosia beetles, and our finding that a representative isolate of this phylotype produces cycloheximide, which inhibits a parasite of the system but not the cultivated fungus, suggests that these actinobacteria may play defensive roles within these systems.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{Biedermann2020,
  author    = {Biedermann, Peter H. W.},
  title     = {Cooperative Breeding in the Ambrosia Beetle Xyleborus affinis and Management of Its Fungal Symbionts},
  series = {Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution},
  volume    = {8},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution},
  issn      = {2296-701X},
  doi       = {10.3389/fevo.2020.518954},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-215662},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Fungus-farming is known from attine ants, macrotermites, and ambrosia beetles (Scolytinae, Platypodinae). Farming ant and termite societies are superorganismal and grow fungal cultivars in monocultures. Social organization of ambrosia beetle groups and their farming systems are poorly studied, because of their enigmatic life within tunnel systems inside of wood. Ambrosia beetle-fungus symbioses evolved many times independently in both the beetles and their fungal cultivars. Observations suggest that there is evolutionary convergence between these lineages, but also a high variation in the degree of sociality and the modes of fungiculture. Using a laboratory observation technique, I here tried to give insights into the social system and fungus symbiosis of the sugar-cane borer, Xyleborus affinis Eichhoff (Scolytinae: Curculionidae), a currently poorly studied ambrosia beetle. The study revealed a cooperatively breeding system characterized by delayed dispersal of adult daughters, alloparental brood care by larvae and adults, and about half of the totipotent adult daughters laying eggs within the natal nest. Most interesting, there was a tendency of egg-laying females to engage more commonly in mutually beneficial behaviors than non-egg-layers. Fungus gardens covering gallery walls composed of five different filamentous fungi. A Raffaelea isolate was predominant and together with an unidentified fungus likely served as the main food for adults and larvae. Three isolates, a Mucor, a Fusarium and a Phaeoacremonium isolate were most abundant in the oldest gallery part close to the entrance; Mucor, Fusarium and the Raffaelea isolate in diseased individuals. Additionally, there was correlative evidence for some fungal isoaltes influencing beetle feeding and hygienic behaviors. Overall, X. affinis is now the second ambrosia beetle that can be classified as a cooperative breeder with division of labor among and between adults and larvae.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{KoenigGuerreiroPeršohetal.2018,
  author    = {K{\"o}nig, Julia and Guerreiro, Marco Alexandre and Peršoh, Derek and Begerow, Dominik and Krauss, Jochen},
  title     = {Knowing your neighbourhood - the effects of Epichlo{\"e} endophytes on foliar fungal assemblages in perennial ryegrass in dependence of season and land-use intensity},
  series = {PeerJ},
  volume    = {6},
  journal   = {PeerJ},
  number    = {e4660},
  doi       = {10.7717/peerj.4660},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-176814},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {Epichlo{\"e} endophytes associated with cool-season grass species can protect their hosts from herbivory and can suppress mycorrhizal colonization of the hosts' roots. However, little is known about whether or not Epichlo{\"e} endophyte infection can also change the foliar fungal assemblages of the host. We tested 52 grassland study sites along a land-use intensity gradient in three study regions over two seasons (spring vs. summer) to determine whether Epichlo{\"e} infection of the host grass Lolium perenne changes the fungal community structure in leaves. Foliar fungal communities were assessed by Next Generation Sequencing of the ITS rRNA gene region. Fungal community structure was strongly affected by study region and season in our study, while land-use intensity and infection with Epichlo{\"e} endophytes had no significant effects. We conclude that effects on non-systemic endophytes resulting from land use practices and Epichlo{\"e} infection reported in other studies were masked by local and seasonal variability in this study's grassland sites.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{KaiserVoggFuerstetal.2015,
  author    = {Kaiser, Bettina and Vogg, Gerd and F{\"u}rst, Ursula B. and Albert, Markus},
  title     = {Parasitic plants of the genus Cuscuta and their interaction with susceptible and resistant host plants},
  series = {Frontiers in Plant Science},
  volume    = {6},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Plant Science},
  number    = {45},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpls.2015.00045},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-144091},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {By comparison with plant microbe interaction, little is known about the interaction of parasitic plants with their hosts. Plants of the genus Cuscuta belong to the family of Cuscutaceae and comprise about 200 species, all of which live as stem holoparasites on other plants. Cuscuta spp. possess no roots nor fully expanded leaves and the vegetative portion appears to be a stem only. The parasite winds around plants and penetrates the host stems via haustoria, forming direct connections to the vascular bundles of their hosts to withdraw water, carbohydrates, and other solutes. Besides susceptible hosts, a few plants exist that exhibit an active resistance against infestation by Cuscuta spp. For example, cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fends off Cuscuta reflexa by means of a hypersensitive-type response occurring in the early penetration phase. This report on the plant plant dialog between Cuscuta spp. and its host plants focuses on the incompatible interaction of C. reflexa with tomato.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{RoemerBollazziRoces2017,
  author    = {R{\"o}mer, Daniela and Bollazzi, Martin and Roces, Flavio},
  title     = {Carbon dioxide sensing in an obligate insect-fungus symbiosis: CO\(_{2}\) preferences of leaf-cutting ants to rear their mutualistic fungus},
  series = {PLoS ONE},
  volume    = {12},
  journal   = {PLoS ONE},
  number    = {4},
  doi       = {10.1371/journal.pone.0174597},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-159561},
  pages     = {e0174597},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {Defense against biotic or abiotic stresses is one of the benefits of living in symbiosis. Leaf-cutting ants, which live in an obligate mutualism with a fungus, attenuate thermal and desiccation stress of their partner through behavioral responses, by choosing suitable places for fungus-rearing across the soil profile. The underground environment also presents hypoxic (low oxygen) and hypercapnic (high carbon dioxide) conditions, which can negatively influence the symbiont. Here, we investigated whether workers of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex lundii use the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as an orientation cue when selecting a place to locate their fungus garden, and whether they show preferences for specific CO\(_{2}\) concentrations. We also evaluated whether levels preferred by workers for fungus-rearing differ from those selected for themselves. In the laboratory, CO\(_{2}\) preferences were assessed in binary choices between chambers with different CO\(_{2}\) concentrations, by quantifying number of workers in each chamber and amount of relocated fungus. Leaf-cutting ants used the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as a spatial cue when selecting places for fungus-rearing. A. lundii preferred intermediate CO\(_{2}\) levels, between 1 and 3\%, as they would encounter at soil depths where their nest chambers are located. In addition, workers avoided both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) levels as they would occur outside the nest and at deeper soil layers, respectively. In order to prevent fungus desiccation, however, workers relocated fungus to high CO\(_{2}\) levels, which were otherwise avoided. Workers' CO\(_{2}\) preferences for themselves showed no clear-cut pattern. We suggest that workers avoid both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) concentrations not because they are detrimental for themselves, but because of their consequences for the symbiotic partner. Whether the preferred CO\(_{2}\) concentrations are beneficial for symbiont growth remains to be investigated, as well as whether the observed preferences for fungus-rearing influences the ants' decisions where to excavate new chambers across the soil profile.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{ArenasRoces2017,
  author    = {Arenas, Andr{\´e}s and Roces, Flavio},
  title     = {Avoidance of plants unsuitable for the symbiotic fungus in leaf-cutting ants: Learning can take place entirely at the colony dump},
  series = {PLoS ONE},
  volume    = {12},
  journal   = {PLoS ONE},
  number    = {3},
  doi       = {10.1371/journal.pone.0171388},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-157559},
  pages     = {e0171388},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {Plants initially accepted by foraging leaf-cutting ants are later avoided if they prove unsuitable for their symbiotic fungus. Plant avoidance is mediated by the waste produced in the fungus garden soon after the incorporation of the unsuitable leaves, as foragers can learn plant odors and cues from the damaged fungus that are both present in the recently produced waste particles. We asked whether avoidance learning of plants unsuitable for the symbiotic fungus can take place entirely at the colony dump. In order to investigate whether cues available in the waste chamber induce plant avoidance in na{\"i}ve subcolonies, we exchanged the waste produced by subcolonies fed either fungicide-treated privet leaves or untreated leaves and measured the acceptance of untreated privet leaves before and after the exchange of waste. Second, we evaluated whether foragers could perceive the avoidance cues directly at the dump by quantifying the visits of labeled foragers to the waste chamber. Finally, we asked whether foragers learn to specifically avoid untreated leaves of a plant after a confinement over 3 hours in the dump of subcolonies that were previously fed fungicide-treated leaves of that species. After the exchange of the waste chambers, workers from subcolonies that had access to waste from fungicide-treated privet leaves learned to avoid that plant. One-third of the labeled foragers visited the dump. Furthermore, na{\"i}ve foragers learned to avoid a specific, previously unsuitable plant if exposed solely to cues of the dump during confinement. We suggest that cues at the dump enable foragers to predict the unsuitable effects of plants even if they had never been experienced in the fungus garden.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Fuchs2017,
  author    = {Fuchs, Benjamin Felix},
  title     = {Effects of timing and herbivory on a grass-endophyte association and its trophic interactions},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-141465},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {I.) Plant associated microorganisms can affect the plant`s interaction with herbivores and higher trophic levels. For instance, endophytic fungi infecting aerial plant parts of grass species produce bioactive alkaloids that can negatively affect species from higher trophic levels, indicating a defensive mutualism between the grass and the endophyte. However, beneficial insects can also be negatively affected by the endophyte, which might question the mutualistic effect of endophytic fungi. On the other hand, grass-endophytes are affected by environmental conditions and species interactions. Grazing can increase endophyte frequencies in natural habitats. Furthermore, endophyte mediated effects on herbivores are most pronounced during warm summers following rainy springs. In this study, we investigated whether endophyte derived alkaloids cascade up a food chain (chapter II) and whether their concentrations depend on plant age and season (chapter III). Further we analysed, whether altered herbivore phenology affects the endophytic fungus (chapter IV) and whether endophyte derived alkaloid production is induced by different herbivore species (chapter V). II.) In our first experimental study we analysed whether grass-endophyte derived alkaloids decreased the performance of two ladybird species feeding on aphids exclusively reared on endophyte infected grass (6 weeks young grass). Further, we screened species from three trophic levels (grass, herbivores and aphid predators) for their alkaloid content using two year old infected grass as diet for herbivores. We established an UPLC-MS method to detect and quantify the amount of the endophyte derived alkaloids peramine and lolitrem B extracted from the organic plant and insect material. Performance parameters of ladybirds revealed little differences between ladybirds fed on aphids reared on endophyte infected and non-infected grass, which probably resulted from low alkaloid concentrations in the young (6-weeks old) endophyte infected grass used in this part of the study. Alkaloid quantification of the two year old endophyte infected grass, herbivores and aphid predators revealed similar concentrations between grass and aphids, while aphid predators contained approximately half of that amount which still exceeded the bioactive threshold. We conclude that alkaloids produced by grass-endophytes cascade up the food chain and are responsible for fitness disadvantages of higher trophic levels. III.) In the second study we investigated the impact of plant age and seasonal timing on grass-endophyte growth and alkaloid production. Plants were sown in April of 2013 and sampled monthly over 30 consecutive months. Endophyte growth was quantified with real-time PCR (qPCR) and alkaloid concentrations with UPLC-MS. We showed that alkaloid concentrations and fungal growth followed a seasonal rhythmicity and that alkaloid concentrations increased with plant age. Alkaloid concentrations peak during summer, when also herbivore abundances are high. Consequently, we conclude that plant age and season contribute to the toxicity of endophytes on grass herbivores IV.) In the third study we simulated earlier spring arrival of aphids by enhancing aphid abundance on endophyte infected and endophyte-free grass in spring and analysed responses across three trophic levels. Enhanced aphid abundance in spring caused higher aphid abundances during the study period. Predators stayed unaffected by increased herbivore abundances; however they did level aphid numbers within two weeks after arrival on the plants, independent of aphid abundance. Grass-endophyte showed a time delayed growth, two weeks after aphid abundance peak and after predators already controlled aphid infestations on the plants. We conclude that phenology shifts of herbivorous insects can affect multi-trophic interactions leading to desynchronizations between phenologies of interacting species and mismatches in food-webs. V.) In the fourth study we analysed whether herbivores induce endophyte growth and alkaloid production and whether different types of herbivores induce specific alkaloid production. We applied three different herbivore treatments on endophyte infected grass over 18 weeks. Locust herbivory increased the insect deterring alkaloid peramine and clipping of plants (simulation of grazing livestock) increased the vertebrate toxic alkaloid lolitrem B. Aphid herbivory did not affect endophyte derived alkaloid concentrations. Endophyte responses to herbivory were species specific which indicates a primarily plant protecting role of alkaloid synthesis in endophyte infected plants and a close chemical crosstalk between interacting species. VI.) In summary, we showed that endophyte derived alkaloids affect higher trophic levels and that alkaloid concentrations in the plant depend on prevalent herbivore species, plant age and seasonal timing. Our results indicate a close chemical crosstalk between the host plant and the endophytic fungus which is susceptible to environmental changes altering the endophyte`s alkaloid production in plants. We gained insights into the grass-endophyte symbiosis in ecological contexts and conclude that several factors determine the herbivore toxic potential of endophytic fungi and thereby their plant mutualistic or parasitic character. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms behind the herbivore induced alkaloid concentration increase, shown in this thesis, especially whether plant signals mediate the endophyte response. Furthermore it would be interesting to study the induction of indirect endophyte mediated defence and how it affects multi-trophic level interactions.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Ratzka2012,
  author    = {Ratzka, Carolin},
  title     = {Immune responses of the ant Camponotus floridanus towards pathogens and its obligate mutualistic endosymbiont Blochmannia floridanus},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-69350},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {Ants of the species Camponotus floridanus live in huge colonies composed of genetically identical or closely related animals, which should predispose them to an increased vulnerability towards infection by pathogens (Cremer et al. 2007). Therefore the question is how ants (or social insects in general) can nevertheless efficiently combat infections. In order to investigate the immune response of the ant C. floridanus, the present study initially focused on the identification of possible immune factors, encoded by the ant´s genome. By using the method "suppression subtractive hybridization" as well as by Illumnia sequencing technology, several immune-related genes could be identified. Among these were genes encoding proteins involved in pathogen recognition, signal transduction, antimicrobial activity, or general stress response. In accordance with the ant´s genome sequence (Bonasio et al. 2010), only three antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes could be identified in C. floridanus. The gene and cDNA sequences of these AMPs were established and their expression was shown to be induced by microbial challenge. Two different defensin genes (type 1 and 2) were characterized. A detailed characterization of the mRNA and gene sequence of the other AMP, a hymenoptaecin, revealed a special repeat structure. The C. floridanus hymenoptaecin has a signal and a pro-sequence followed by a hymenoptaecin-like domain and six directly repeated hymenoptaecin domains (HDs). Since each HD is flanked by two known processing sites, proteolytic processing of the precursor protein may generate several mature AMPs. Bioinformatical analyses revealed the presence of hymenoptaecin genes with similar multipeptide precursor structure in genomes of other ant species suggesting an evolutionary conserved important role of this gene in ant immunity. C. floridanus ants harbor the obligate intracellular bacterium, Blochmannia floridanus, in specialized cells (so-called bacteriocytes), which are intercalated between midgut cells as well as in ovaries of females (Blochmann 1882; Sauer et al. 2002; Schr{\"o}der et al. 1996). Ant hosts face the problem that on the one hand they have to maintain the beneficial symbiotic bacteria and on the other hand they need to raise an immune response against harmful pathogenic bacteria during an infection. It was investigated, if endosymbionts are actually detected by the host immune system. Injection of B. floridanus induced an immune response of its host C. floridanus, which was comparable to the one towards pathogens. This means that, despite the evolutionary established cooperation of the endosymbionts and their hosts, these bacteria are still recognized as „non-self" by the host immune system. This finding led to the question, if the ant immune system might be involved in regulation of the endosymbiont number in the midgut tissue in order to avoid their uncontrolled replication. During the holometabolous life cycle of the ant hosts the distribution of bacteriocytes and of Blochmannia endosymbionts is remarkably dynamic and peaks in late pupal stages, in which the entire midgut is transformed into a symbiotic organ (Stoll et al. 2010). It was hypothesized that hosts could regulate the number of endosymbionts present in their tissues via the innate immune system. A quantitative gene expression analysis of assumed symbiosis-relevant candidate genes revealed distinct expression patterns of some genes according to developmental stage and tissue. Moreover, the immune gene expression in response to bacterial challenge was investigated in the pupal stage. By an artificial immune-challenge of pupae it was confirmed that in fact the immune response of the endosymbiont-bearing midgut tissue differs from that of other body parts. The data support a key role for amidase peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), especially PGRP-LB, in endosymbiont tolerance and suggest an involvement of the lysosomal system in control of Blochmannia endosymbionts. In sum, this thesis provides a first description of the immune response of the ant C. floridanus. A comprehensive set of immune-relevant genes was determined. Especially, the identification and molecular characterization of the hymenoptaecin gene delivered new insights into the immune competence of ants in general. Moreover, first indications could be gathered for the involvement of the immune system in controlling the endosymbiont B. floridanus.},
  subject      = {Humorale Immunit{\"a}t},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Stoll2009,
  author    = {Stoll, Sascha},
  title     = {Funktionelle Analyse von Blochmannia floridanus, dem prim{\"a}ren Endosymbionten der Rossameise Camponotus floridanus},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-37238},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Ameisen der Gattung Camponotus beherbergen bakterielle Symbionten der Gattung Blochmannia in spezialisierten Zellen des Mitteldarms (Blochmann, 1882; Buchner, 1965; Sauer, 2000; Schr{\"o}der et al., 1996). Die Genomsequenzierung dieser Symbionten zeigte, dass Blochmannia, {\"a}hnlich den Symbionten von Blattl{\"a}usen, haupts{\"a}chlich Gene der Aminos{\"a}urebiosynthese beibehalten hat (Degnan et al., 2005; Gil et al., 2003). Die Relevanz dieser nahrungsaufwertenden Funktion konnte experimentell best{\"a}tigt werden (Feldhaar et al., 2007). Ein Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Aufkl{\"a}rung der dynamischen Interaktion der beiden Partner w{\"a}hrend des komplexen Lebenszyklus des holometabolen Wirtes. Fr{\"u}here Studien deuteten darauf hin, dass die Symbiose vor allem w{\"a}hrend der Larven- und Puppenphasen von Bedeutung sein k{\"o}nnte (Feldhaar et al., 2007; Wolschin et al., 2004; Zientz et al., 2006). Mit fluoreszenter in situ Hybridisierung (FISH) und konfokaler Laserscanning Mikroskopie konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Lokalisierung von B. floridanus w{\"a}hrend der wichtigsten Entwicklungsstadien aufgekl{\"a}rt werden. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Symbionten schon im ersten Larvenstadium in spezialisierten Zellen um den Darm angeordnet sind, aber in sp{\"a}teren Stadien nicht, wie bisher angenommen, auf diese Bakteriozyten beschr{\"a}nkt sind, sondern bis zum Schlupf der jungen Arbeiterinnen massiv andere Darmzellen infizieren. {\"U}bereinstimmend mit Bestimmungen der Zellzahl in den verschiedenen Wirtsstadien ist die Anzahl der Symbionten gegen Ende der Metamorphose am h{\"o}chsten. Die Symbiose degeneriert in sehr alten Arbeiterinnen, gut gef{\"u}llte Bakteriozyten werden jedoch noch monatelang beibehalten. Mit Macroarray- und qRT- PCR- basierten Transkriptomanalysen wurde die Expression der bakteriellen Gene in charakteristischen Entwicklungsstadien des Wirtes untersucht. Allgemein zeigen vor allem Gene f{\"u}r molekulare Chaperons und bestimmte bakterielle Grundfunktionen eine hohe Expression. Aber auch viele Gene, die m{\"o}glicherweise wichtige Funktionen in der Symbiose besitzen, wie die Biosynthese essentieller Aminos{\"a}uren und das Recycling von Stickstoffverbindungen, zeigen ein hohes absolutes Transkriptlevel. Zudem besteht eine positive Korrelation zwischen dem Expressionsniveau und dem GC- Gehalt der Gene, die in dem h{\"o}heren Selektionsdruck und damit einer geringeren Mutationsrate der essentiellen Gene begr{\"u}ndet liegt (Schaber et al., 2005). Durch Proteinanalysen konnte best{\"a}tigt werden, dass die Faktoren mit der h{\"o}chsten absoluten Transkription die dominanten Proteine der Symbionten darstellen. In den unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstadien zeigen viele Gene eine deutliche Dynamik, deren Ausmaß aber, verglichen mit freilebenden Bakterien, gering ist. Aus den Expressionsprofilen aufeinanderfolgender Gene lassen sich m{\"o}gliche Transkriptionseinheiten ableiten, die teilweise auch experimentell best{\"a}tigt wurden. Oftmals zeigen auch Gene, die nicht in Transkriptionseinheiten angeordnet sind, aber verwandten Stoffwechselwegen angeh{\"o}ren, {\"a}hnliche Muster. Dies deutet auf das Vorhandensein grundlegender Genregulations-mechanismen hin, obwohl im Genom von B. floridanus nur noch sehr wenige Transkriptionsfaktoren codiert sind (Gil et al., 2003). Auf {\"u}bergeordneter Ebene zeigt sich, dass bei Symbionten aus sp{\"a}ten Puppenstadien viele symbioserelevante Gene im Vergleich zu Genen des Grundmetabolismus eine erh{\"o}hte Expression zeigen. Dies betrifft besonders die Biosynthese aromatischer und verzweigter Aminos{\"a}uren, die in diesen Stadien vom Wirt in hoher Menge ben{\"o}tigt werden, w{\"a}hrend die internen Reserven gleichzeitig zur Neige gehen. Dies {\"a}ußert sich auch im deutlichen Abfallen der Speicherproteinmenge des Wirts gegen Ende der Puppenphase. Die festgestellte Ver{\"a}nderung der Symbiontenzahl {\"u}bertrifft das geringe Ausmaß der Genregulation um ein Vielfaches. Die Bakterien liegen in jedem Stadium polyploid mit bis zu 100 Genomkopien vor, dieser Polyploidiegrad bleibt jedoch w{\"a}hrend der gesamten Wirtsentwicklung weitestgehend konstant. Somit scheint die Kontrolle des Wirts {\"u}ber die bakterielle Vermehrung der entscheidende Faktor dieser Symbiose zu sein. Die verbleibenden regulatorischen F{\"a}higkeiten der Bakterien stellen m{\"o}glicherweise eine Feinjustierung von optimierten Produktionseinheiten dar, deren Anzahl nach den Bed{\"u}rfnissen des Wirtes ver{\"a}ndert wird. Insgesamt konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit neue Einblicke in das komplexe Zusammenleben von Blochmannia und Camponotus gewonnen werden, die zu einem besseren Verst{\"a}ndnis der biologischen Funktion und der grundlegenden Mechanismen dieser Symbiose f{\"u}hren. Eine der wichtigsten Fragestellungen nach dem Sinn einer nahrungsaufwertenden Symbiose f{\"u}r einen Nahrungsgeneralisten konnte mit starken Hinweisen auf eine stadienabh{\"a}ngige Relevanz der Symbiose beantwortet werden, die den enormen evolution{\"a}ren Erfolg dieser Ameisengattung erkl{\"a}ren k{\"o}nnte.\&\#8195;},
  subject      = {Intrazellul{\"a}re Symbiose},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Wehrl2006,
  author    = {Wehrl, Markus},
  title     = {Bakterielle Aufnahme, Selektivit{\"a}t und interne Prozessierung bei marinen Schw{\"a}mmen (Porifera)},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-21660},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {Marine Schw{\"a}mme (Porifera) gelten als die evolution{\"a}r {\"a}ltesten Metazoen. Sie sind in allen Meeren verbreitet und tragen einen großen Anteil zur Invertebraten-Fauna bei. Ihrer Lebens-weise als Filtrierer entsprechend pumpen Schw{\"a}mme bis zu 23.000 l Seewasser Kg-1 Schwamm Tag-1. Das enthaltene Bakterioplankton wird mit hoher Effizienz ausgefiltert und dient als Nahrung. Gleichzeitig enthalten einige Schwammspezies eine sehr hohe Anzahl phylogenetisch diverser Bakterien extrazellul{\"a}r in der Mesohylmatrix, die bis zu 40\% der Gesamtbiomasse ausmachen. Die als Symbionten bezeichnete Bakteriengemeinschaft weist eine hochgradig spezifische phylogenetische Zusammensetzung auf, die bei unterschiedlichen Schwammspezies, jedoch nicht im Seewasser oder Sediment, gefunden wird. Im Rahmen dieser Dissertationsarbeit wurden unterschiedliche Muster der Bakterien-haltigkeit mariner Schw{\"a}mme durch Elektronenmikroskopie beschrieben. Die Gruppe der bakterienhaltigen Schw{\"a}mme wies eine hohe Anzahl von Mikroben im Mesohyl auf. Aufgrund der bakteriellen Verteilung wurde zwischen stark und intermedi{\"a}r bakterienhaltigen Spezies unterschieden. Stark bakterienhaltige Schw{\"a}mme zeigten eine gleichm{\"a}ßig dichte Verteilung der Mikroben im Mesohyl, die Bakterienkonzentrationen lagen bei 109 - 1010 Zel-len g-1 Schwamm. Intermedi{\"a}r bakterienhaltige Schw{\"a}mme enthielten lokale Anh{\"a}ufungen von Mikroben, die in allen Stellen des Tieres gefunden wurden. Die Zellzahlen lagen bei 108 - 109 Bakterien g-1 Schwamm. Die Gruppe der bakterienarmen Schw{\"a}mme wurde durch ein mikroskopisch bakterienfreies Mesohyl charakterisiert, die Bakterienkonzentrationen betrugen ~106 Zellen g-1 Schwamm und waren damit vergleichbar zu nat{\"u}rlichem Seewasser. In Korrelation zum Bakteriengehalt wurden anatomische Unterschiede des Gewebes beider Schwammgruppen beobachtet. Die bakterielle Aufnahme von Schw{\"a}mmen wurde an einzelnen Individuen in Filtra-tionsexperimenten untersucht. Es wurde die Aufnahme des „Futterbakteriums" Vibrio sp. SB177 und des schwammspezifischen Symbiontenkonsortiums gemessen. Die bakterien-haltigen Schw{\"a}mme Aplysina aerophoba und Chondrosia reniformis wiesen im Vergleich zu „Futterbakterien" eine sehr stark verminderte Aufnahme gegen{\"u}ber ihren eigenen Symbionten auf, bei A. aerophoba sank die Filtrationsrate von rn = 2,76 x 106 auf 5,47 x 104 Bakterien g-1 Schwamm h-1. Die bakterienarmen Schw{\"a}mme Dysidea avara und Tethya aurantium zeigten eine effiziente und undifferenzierte Aufnahme gegen{\"u}ber allen Mikroben. Das nur bei bak-terienhaltigen Schw{\"a}mmen gefundene Muster der stark verminderten Aufnahme von Symbi-onten ist statistisch signifikant. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss abdaubarer bakterieller Zell-wandproteine und der bakteriellen Flagelle erbrachten keine Hinweise auf eine Beteiligung dieser Faktoren am bakteriellen Filtrationsprozess der Schw{\"a}mme. Zur Untersuchung einer m{\"o}glichen Filtrationsselektivit{\"a}t gegen{\"u}ber bestimmten bak-teriellen Vertretern des Seewasser- und des Symbiontenkonsortiums wurden Filtrationsexperi-mente durchgef{\"u}hrt. Proben des Inkubationswassers wurde w{\"a}hrend des Experiments entnom-men und die phylogenetische Zusammensetzung der Konsortien mittels Denaturierender Gradienten Gel Elektrophorese (DGGE) untersucht. Die Banden wurden anhand der St{\"a}rke {\"u}ber den zeitlichen Verlauf klassifiziert. Von den anf{\"a}nglich 40 nachweisbaren Banden des Seewasserkonsortiums wurden nach 300 Minuten experimenteller Dauer eine als konstant, 18 als reduziert und 21 als verschwindend eingeordnet. F{\"u}r das Symbiontenkonsortium wurden von den initial 65 Banden nach 300 Minuten 30 Banden als konstant, 19 als reduziert und 16 als verschwindend klassifiziert. W{\"a}hrend f{\"u}r das Seewasserkonsortium eine Aufnahme fast aller bakterieller Phylotypen {\"u}berwog, unterlagen nur wenige Phylotypen des Symbionten-konsortiums einer starken Aufnahme. Durch Sequenzierung und phylogenetische Zuordnung repr{\"a}sentativer Banden wurde gezeigt, dass f{\"u}r die bakterielle Aufnahme keine Selektivit{\"a}t gegen{\"u}ber einer bestimmten phylogenetischen Abstammungslinie besteht. So wurden z. B. Phylotypen der Chloroflexi als konstant, reduziert, als auch verschwindend beurteilt. Die interne Prozessierung und der Transport aufgenommener Partikel und Bakterien im Mesohyl wurde mikroskopisch untersucht. A. aerophoba transportierte große Aggregate aufgenommener Latex Beads in speziellen Schwammzellgruppen durch das Mesohyl. Es konnte keine Abgabe der Beads in die extrazellul{\"a}re Matrix (ECM) beobachtet werden. D. avara transportierte einzelne Beads durch das Mesohyl, nach 300 Minuten wurden zahlreiche Beads in der ECM gefunden. Die bakterielle Aufnahme wurde an dem GFP-exprimierenden „Futterbakterium" Vibrio sp. MMW1 visualisiert. Die Bakterien wurden mit hoher Effizienz von A. aerophoba aufgenommen, konnten jedoch nicht in tieferen Mesohylbereichen nach-gewiesen werden, was auf eine z{\"u}gige Lyse der Zellen hindeutete. Fluoreszenzmarkierte Symbiontenzellen wurden nicht von A. aerophoba aber, in {\"U}bereinstimung mit den Filtrationsexperimenten, von dem bakterienarmen D. avara aufgenommen. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass bakerienhaltige Schw{\"a}mme {\"u}ber einen komplexen Mechanismus der bakteriellen Aufnahme verf{\"u}gen, durch den zwischen Futterbakterien und Symbionten unterschieden wird. Schw{\"a}mme stellen deshalb ein interessantes Modellsystem zur Untersuchung von Mechanismen der generellen Phagozytose und der gleichzeitigen Tolerierung von symbiontischen Bakterienzellen im Gewebe dar.},
  subject      = {Meeresschw{\"a}mme},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Kaltenpoth2006,
  author    = {Kaltenpoth, Martin},
  title     = {Protective bacteria and attractive pheromones - symbiosis and chemical communication in beewolves (Philanthus spp., Hymenoptera, Crabronidae)},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-20867},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {BACTERIAL ENDOSYMBIONTS OF BEEWOLVES Symbiotic interactions between different species are ubiquitous and essential components of the natural world and have probably affected the evolution of every living organism. Insects are the most diverse metazoan class on earth, and they benefit from the extensive metabolic potential of microorganisms in a wide variety of symbiotic associations. The vast majority of well-studied insect-microbe symbioses to date are nutritional interactions in which the symbionts provide their hosts with essential nutrients. Some cases, however, have been described in which symbiotic bacteria play an important role in intraspecific olfactory communication or serve as a defense against pathogens or parasitoids. This thesis reports on a unique and highly specialized association between a digger wasp, the European beewolf (Philanthus triangulum, Hymenoptera, Crabronidae), and actinomycete bacteria. In contrast to all other known symbioses, the beewolf bacteria are cultivated in the reservoirs of unique antennal glands in female beewolves. The female secretes the bacteria into its subterranean brood cells prior to oviposition. Several days later, when the beewolf larva has finished feeding on the paralyzed honeybees that had been provisioned by the mother, it takes up the bacteria and applies them to the cocoon silk during the spinning process. On the cocoon, the symbionts play an important role in reducing the incidence of fungal infestation and thereby significantly enhance the survival probability of the larva in the cocoon during the long and potentially very dangerous inactive phase of hibernation in the underground brood cell. Observations of beewolf larvae as well as experiments in which female beewolf larvae were reared in the absence of the bacteria suggest that the symbionts are transmitted vertically from mothers to daughters. Presumably, the bacteria are taken up from the cocoon during eclosion and incorporated into the antennal gland reservoirs. Phylogenetic analyses of hosts and symbionts as well as artificial transfer experiments are necessary to investigate whether horizontal transmission of bacteria between beewolf species may occasionally occur. Genetic analyses revealed that the symbionts constitute an undescribed species of the genus Streptomyces within the eubacterial family Actinomycetaceae. 16S rDNA primers and an oligonucletide probe were designed for the specific detection of the Philanthus endosymbionts by PCR and fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH). By PCR-based screening, closely related endosymbionts were found in 28 Philanthus species and subspecies. By contrast, no symbionts could be detected in closely related genera of the subfamily Philanthinae (Aphilanthops, Clypeadon, Cerceris), indicating that the symbiosis might be restricted to the genus Philanthus. Based on almost complete 16S rRNA gene sequence data, the symbionts of all analyzed Philanthus species formed a monophyletic clade within the genus Streptomyces, indicating that the symbiosis is highly specific and most likely the product of a long history of coevolution and cospeciation. Sequence divergences among symbionts suggest an origin of the Philanthus- Streptomyces association about 26-67 million years ago, which may have coincided with the origin of the genus Philanthus. On the basis of 16S rDNA sequences and ultrastructural data, the new taxon 'Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi' is proposed for the antennal symbionts of Philanthus species, with symbionts from different host species being treated as ecotypes and named according to their hosts (e.g. 'Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi triangulum'). It is not yet clear how the bacteria benefit from the association with Philanthus species. Certainly, they obtain an unoccupied and presumably competition-free niche in the beewolf antennae and a reliable transmission route to the next generation. Additionally, several pieces of evidence suggest that they may also receive nutrients from their host: (1) Females secrete massive amounts of bacteria into each brood cell and sometimes construct several brood cells per day; thus, the bacteria have to grow quickly inside the antennal gland reservoirs to replenish the stock for further brood cells. (2) The reservoirs are surrounded by class 3 gland cells that may supply the bacteria with nutrients (e.g. amino acids). (3) One of the walls bordering the antennal gland is of a net-like structure, thus, possibly allowing hemolymph to enter the reservoir lumen and provide nutrients to the symbionts. This possibility is further substantiated by chemical analyses of the hydrocarbon profile of the antennal gland secretion and female hemolymph, which revealed very similar compositions. The beewolf-Streptomyces symbiosis constitutes the first known case of bacteria being cultivated in insect antennae and one of the few examples involving the pharmaceutically important group of actinomycete bacteria as insect endosymbionts. Further studies on ecological and evolutionary aspects of the symbiosis will provide valuable insights into the importance of actinomycete bacteria for pathogen defense in insects and may also identify novel secondary metabolites with antibiotic properties that might prove useful for human medicine. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION AND MATE CHOICE IN THE EUROPEAN BEEWOLF Chemical signals constitute both the most ancient and the most common form of communication among organisms. In insects, pheromones play an essential role in mediating intraspecific communication. Many recent studies have investigated the importance of insect olfactory signals in the context of courtship and mating. However, since most of these studies have focused on female pheromones, male sex pheromones have as yet received little attention despite their potential ecological as well as evolutionary importance for mate attraction and mate choice. Male European beewolves establish and defend small territories that they mark with a secretion from cephalic glands. Presumably, the secretion acts as a sex pheromone and attracts receptive females to the territory. Since male territories are clumped around female nesting sites, females have the opportunity to choose among potential mates. The marking pheromone of male beewolves varies with kinship, and it is demonstrated here that geographic origin, age and size also affect the amount and/or composition of the pheromone. Thus, the marking secretion contains information on a variety of male characters that may be important in the context of female choice. Both genetic distance ("optimal outbreeding") and overall genetic quality ("good genes") of a male might influence female mating decisions in the European beewolf. Polymorphic microsatellite markers are presented for the European beewolf that facilitate female choice experiments by genetic paternity analysis.},
  subject      = {Philanthus},
  language  = {en}
}