@phdthesis{Metz2009,
  author    = {Metz, Barbara},
  title     = {Worauf achtet der Fahrer? Steuerung der Aufmerksamkeit beim Fahren mit visuellen Nebenaufgaben},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-37704},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Die Arbeit befasst sich mit der Steuerung der Aufmerksamkeit w{\"a}hrend visueller Nebenaufgaben beim Fahren. Es wird angenommen, dass f{\"u}r die visuelle Wahrnehmung beim Fahren drei Prozesse zur Steuerung der Aufmerksamkeit beitragen. (1) {\"U}ber top-down Prozesse wird die Aufmerksamkeit auf f{\"u}r die aktuelle Handlung besonders relevante Situationsbestandteile gelenkt. (2) Explorative Wahrnehmung dient dazu, ein umfassenderes Situationsmodell zu entwickeln, das neben aktuell handlungssteuernden Situationsbestandteilen auch andere, potentiell aufgabenrelevante Ob¬jekte zu einem umfassenderen Abbild der Situation integriert. (3) Saliente Reize k{\"o}nnen {\"u}ber bottom-up Aktivierung die Aufmerksamkeit auf sich ziehen. Es ist bekannt, dass Fahrer w{\"a}hrend der Bearbeitung visueller Zweitaufgaben mit ihrem Blick und damit mit ihrer Aufmerksamkeit wiederholt zwischen Fahr- und Nebenaufgabe wechseln. Grundlage der experimentellen Arbeiten ist die Idee, dass hierbei die Ausrichtung der Aufmerksamkeit in der Fahraufgabe {\"u}ber top-down Prozesse gesteuert wird und auf einem mentalen Abbild der Situation basiert. Vor dem Beginn der Nebenaufgabe fokussiert der Fahrer auf die Fahrsituation, bewertet sie und entwickelt eine Antizipation der zuk{\"u}nftigen Situationsentwicklung. Das entstehende Situationsmodell entscheidet dar{\"u}ber, wie viel Aufmerksamkeit w{\"a}hrend der Nebenaufgabe auf die Fahraufgabe verwendet wird, und welche Situationsbestandteile durch die Blicke zur Straße kontrolliert werden. Der Fahrer lenkt {\"u}ber top-down Prozesse seine Aufmerksamkeit auf als relevant f{\"u}r die Situationsentwicklung bewertete Objekte. Andere Objekte, sowie eine von der aktuellen Fahraufgabe unabh{\"a}ngige, explorative Wahrnehmung der Fahrsituation werden w{\"a}hrend der Nebenaufgabe vernachl{\"a}ssigt. Aus der Literatur ergeben sich außerdem Hinweise darauf, dass eine reizbasierte bottom-up Ausrichtung der Aufmerksamkeit w{\"a}hrend visueller Ablenkung zumindest eingeschr{\"a}nkt, wenn nicht sogar zeitweise vollst{\"a}ndig unterdr{\"u}ckt ist. Die durchgef{\"u}hrten experimentellen Arbeiten finden in der Fahrsimulation Belege f{\"u}r die angenommen top-down Steuerung der Aufmerksamkeit w{\"a}hrend visueller Nebenaufgaben beim Fahren. Es werden zwei unterschiedliche Messans{\"a}tze verwendet. Studie 1 und 2 greifen auf die Analyse des Blickverhaltens zur{\"u}ck. In diesen beiden Studien absolvieren die Testfahrer l{\"a}ngere, anspruchsvolle Fahrten, w{\"a}hrend denen visuelle Nebenaufgaben bearbeitet werden. Es ergeben sich Hinweise auf eine tiefere visuelle Verarbeitung der Fahrszene direkt vor dem Beginn der Nebenaufgabe. W{\"a}hrend der Bearbeitung der visuellen Nebenaufgaben passen die Fahrer ihre Aufmerksamkeitsverteilung an die Erfordernisse der Fahrsituation an: In anspruchsvollen Fahrsituationen wird h{\"a}ufiger und l{\"a}nger auf die Straße geblickt als in weniger beanspruchenden Situationen. Es finden sich außerdem Hinweise daf{\"u}r, dass spezifische Fahrfehler mit einer fehlerhaften Ausrichtung der Aufmerksamkeit in der Fahrsituation in Zusammenhang stehen. Studie 3 und 4 verwenden das Ph{\"a}nomen der Change Blindness als Indikator f{\"u}r die Ausrichtung der Aufmerksamkeit. Im Rahmen von Fahrten mit kontrollierten Situationsbedingungen wird die Hypothese untersucht, dass w{\"a}hrend der Bearbeitung visueller Nebenaufgabe die fahrbezogene Aufmerksamkeit auf fahrrelevante Situationsbestandteile gelenkt wird. Die Testfahrer n{\"a}hern sich wiederholt Kreuzungen an. W{\"a}hrend der Anfahrten wird {\"u}ber Okklusion ein Blickverhalten vorgegeben, das dem bei der Bearbeitung visueller Nebenaufgaben {\"a}hnelt. Die Fahrer sollen mit Tastendruck reagieren, wenn sie pl{\"o}tzliche {\"A}nderungen bemerken. Die {\"A}nderungen k{\"o}nnen sowohl relevante als auch irrelevante Fahrzeuge betreffen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine schlechte Entdeckungsleistung f{\"u}r {\"A}nderungen an irrelevanten Fahrzeugen. {\"A}nderungen an relevanten Objekten werden dagegen so gut wie immer bemerkt. Ob die {\"A}nderung durch Okklusion maskiert wird oder ob sie stattfindet, w{\"a}hrend die Fahrer die Straße sehen, hat keinen eindeutigen Ein¬fluss auf die Entdeckungsleistung. Dies kann ein Hinweis darauf sein, dass in der untersuchten Doppelaufgabensituation keine bottom-up Ausrichtung der Aufmerksamkeit erfolgt. Die angenommene top-down gesteuerte Beschr{\"a}nkung der Aufmerksamkeit auf als relevant bewertete Bestandteile der Fahrsituation hat Konsequenzen f{\"u}r die Analyse von Verkehrsunf{\"a}llen. Unf{\"a}lle infolge von visueller Ablenkung durch selbst initiierte Zweitaufgaben sind dann besonders wahrscheinlich, wenn das Situationsmodell des Fahrers falsch oder ungenau ist. Dies kann beispielsweise geschehen, wenn ein peripheres, nicht beachtetes Objekt pl{\"o}tzlich relevant wird und eine Reaktion des Fahrers erforderlich macht. In {\"U}bereinstimmung mit Befunden zur Gefahrenwahrnehmung sind besonders Fahranf{\"a}nger aufgrund ihrer noch nicht ausreichend entwickelten mentalen Modellen anf{\"a}llig f{\"u}r Fehleinsch{\"a}tzungen von Fahrsituationen. Dies f{\"u}hrt bei Ablenkung durch Nebenaufgaben zu einer erh{\"o}hten Unfallgef{\"a}hrdung.},
  subject      = {Visuelle Aufmerksamkeit},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Grossekathoefer2022,
  author    = {Großekath{\"o}fer, Jonas David},
  title     = {Virtually Valid? On the Importance of Ecological Validity and Virtual Reality for Social Attention Research},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-26041},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-260417},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Gazes are of central relevance for people. They are crucial for navigating the world and communicating with others. Nevertheless, research in recent years shows that many findings from experimental research on gaze behavior cannot be transferred from the laboratory to everyday behavior. For example, the frequency with which conspecifics are looked at is considerably higher in experimental contexts than what can be observed in daily behavior. In short: findings from laboratories cannot be generalized into general statements. This thesis is dedicated to this matter. The dissertation describes and documents the current state of research on social attention through a literature review, including a meta-analysis on the /gaze cueing/ paradigm and an empirical study on the robustness of gaze following behavior. In addition, virtual reality was used in one of the first studies in this research field. Virtual reality has the potential to significantly improve the transferability of experimental laboratory studies to everyday behavior. This is because the technology enables a high degree of experimental control in naturalistic research designs. As such, it has the potential to transform empirical research in the same way that the introduction of computers to psychological research did some 50 years ago. The general literature review on social attention is extended to the classic /gaze cueing/ paradigm through a systematic review of publications and a meta-analytic evaluation (Study 1). The cumulative evidence supported the findings of primary studies: Covert spatial attention is directed by faces. However, the experimental factors included do not explain the surprisingly large variance in the published results. Thus, there seem to be further, not well-understood variables influencing these social processes. Moreover, classic /gaze cueing/ studies have limited ecological validity. This is discussed as a central reason for the lack of generalisability. Ecological validity describes the correspondence between experimental factors and realistic situations. A stimulus or an experimental design can have high and low ecological validity on different dimensions and have different influences on behavior. Empirical research on gaze following behavior showed that the /gaze cueing/ effect also occurs with contextually embedded stimuli (Study 2). The contextual integration of the directional cue contrasted classical /gaze cueing/ studies, which usually show heads in isolation. The research results can thus be transferred /within/ laboratory studies to higher ecologically valid research paradigms. However, research shows that the lack of ecological validity in experimental designs significantly limits the transferability of experimental findings to complex situations /outside/ the laboratory. This seems to be particularly the case when social interactions and norms are investigated. However, ecological validity is also often limited in these studies for other factors, such as contextual embedding /of participants/, free exploration behavior (and, thus, attentional control), or multimodality. In a first study, such high ecological validity was achieved for these factors with virtual reality, which could not be achieved in the laboratory so far (Study 3). Notably, the observed fixation patterns showed differences even under /most similar/ conditions in the laboratory and natural environments. Interestingly, these were similar to findings also derived from comparisons of eye movement in the laboratory and field investigations. These findings, which previously came from hardly comparable groups, were thus confirmed by the present Study 3 (which did not have this limitation). Overall, /virtual reality/ is a new technical approach to contemporary social attention research that pushes the boundaries of previous experimental research. The traditional trade-off between ecological validity and experimental control thus becomes obsolete, and laboratory studies can closely inherit an excellent approximation of reality. Finally, the present work describes and discusses the possibilities of this technology and its practical implementation. Within this context, the extent to which this development can still guarantee a constructive classification of different laboratory tests in the future is examined.},
  subject      = {Aufmerksamkeit},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Murali2023,
  author    = {Murali, Supriya},
  title     = {Understanding the function of spontaneous blinks by investigating internally and externally directed processes},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-28747},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-287473},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Humans spontaneously blink several times a minute. These blinks are strongly modulated during various cognitive task. However, the precise function of blinking and the reason for their modulation has not been fully understood. In the present work, I investigated the function of spontaneous blinks through various perceptual and cognitive tasks. Previous research has revealed that blinks rates decrease during some tasks but increase during others. When trying to understand these seemingly contradictory results, I observed that blink reduction occurs when one engages with an external input. For instance, a decrease has been observed due to the onset of a stimulus, sensory input processing and attention towards sensory input. However, for activities that do not involve such an engagement, e.g. imagination, daydreaming or creativity, the blink rate has been shown to increase. To follow up on the proposed hypothesis, I distinguished tasks that involve the processing of an external stimulus and tasks that involve disengagement. In the first part of the project, I explored blinking during stimulus engagement. If the probability of blinking is low when engaging with the stimulus, then one should find a reduction in blinks specifically during the time period of processing but not during sensory input per se. To this end, in study 1, I tested the influence of task-relevant information duration on blink timing and additionally manipulated the overall sensory input using a visual and an auditory temporal simultaneity judgement task. The results showed that blinks were suppressed longer for longer periods of relevant information or in other words, blinks occurred at the end of relevant information processing for both the visual and the auditory modality. Since relevance is mediated through top-down processes, I argue that the reduction in blinks is a top-down driven suppression. In studies 2 and 3, I again investigated stimulus processing, but in this case, processing was triggered internally and not based on specific changes in the external input. To this end, I used bistable stimuli, in which the actual physical stimulus remains constant but their perception switches between different interpretations. Studies on the involvement of attention in such bistable perceptual changes indicate that the sensory input is reprocessed before the perceptual switch. The results revealed a reduction in eye blink rates before the report of perceptual switches. Importantly, I was able to decipher that the decrease was not caused by the perceptual switch or the behavioral response but likely started before the internal switch. Additionally, periods between a blink and a switch were longer than interblink intervals, indicating that blinks were followed by a period of stable percept. To conclude, the first part of the project revealed that there is a top-down driven blink suppression during the processing of an external stimulus. In the second part of the project, I extended the idea of blinks marking the disengagement from external processing and tested if blinking is associated with better performance during internally directed processes. Specifically, I investigated divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, and the link between performance and blink rates as well as the effect of motor restriction. While I could show that motor restriction was the main factor influencing divergent thinking, the relationship between eye blink rates and creative output also depended on restriction. Results showed that higher blink rates were associated with better performance during free movement, but only between subjects. In other words, subjects who had overall higher blink rates scored better in the task, but when they were allowed to sit or walk freely. Within a single subject, trial with higher blink rates were not associated with better performance. Therefore, possibly, people who are able to disengage easily, as indicated by an overall high blink rate, perform better in divergent thinking tasks. However, the link between blink rate and internal tasks is not clear at this point. Indeed, a more complex measurement of blink behavior might be necessary to understand the relationship. In the final part of the project, I aimed to further understand the function of blinks through their neural correlates. I extracted the blink-related neural activity in the primary visual cortex (V1) of existing recordings of three rhesus monkeys during different sensory processing states. I analyzed spike related multi-unit responses, frequency dependent power changes, local field potentials and laminar distribution of activity while the animal watched a movie compared to when it was shown a blank screen. The results showed a difference in blink-related neural activity dependent on the processing state. This difference suggests a state dependent function of blinks. Taken altogether, the work presented in this thesis suggests that eye blinks have an important function during cognitive and perceptual processes. Blinks seem to facilitate a disengagement from the external world and are therefore suppressed during intended processing of external stimuli.},
  subject      = {Lidschlag},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Flechsenhar2019,
  author    = {Flechsenhar, Aleya Felicia},
  title     = {The Ubiquity of Social Attention - a Detailed Investigation of the Underlying Mechanisms},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-18452},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-184528},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {This dissertation highlights various aspects of basic social attention by choosing versatile approaches to disentangle the precise mechanisms underlying the preference to focus on other human beings. The progressive examination of different social processes contrasted with aspects of previously adopted principles of general attention. Recent research investigating eye movements during free exploration revealed a clear and robust social bias, especially for the faces of depicted human beings in a naturalistic scene. However, free viewing implies a combination of mechanisms, namely automatic attention (bottom-up), goal-driven allocation (top-down), or contextual cues and inquires consideration of overt (open exploration using the eyes) as well as covert orienting (peripheral attention without eye movement). Within the scope of this dissertation, all of these aspects have been disentangled in three studies to provide a thorough investigation of different influences on social attention mechanisms. In the first study (section 2.1), we implemented top-down manipulations targeting non-social features in a social scene to test competing resources. Interestingly, attention towards social aspects prevailed, even though this was detrimental to completing the requirements. Furthermore, the tendency of this bias was evident for overall fixation patterns, as well as fixations occurring directly after stimulus onset, suggesting sustained as well as early preferential processing of social features. Although the introduction of tasks generally changes gaze patterns, our results imply only subtle variance when stimuli are social. Concluding, this experiment indicates that attention towards social aspects remains preferential even in light of top-down demands. The second study (section 2.2) comprised of two separate experiments, one in which we investigated reflexive covert attention and another in which we tested reflexive as well as sustained overt attention for images in which a human being was unilaterally located on either the left or right half of the scene. The first experiment consisted of a modified dot-probe paradigm, in which peripheral probes were presented either congruently on the side of the social aspect, or incongruently on the non-social side. This was based on the assumption that social features would act similar to cues in traditional spatial cueing paradigms, thereby facilitating reaction times for probes presented on the social half as opposed to the non-social half. Indeed, results reflected such congruency effect. The second experiment investigated these reflexive mechanisms by monitoring eye movements and specifying the location of saccades and fixations for short as well as long presentation times. Again, we found the majority of initial saccades to be congruently directed to the social side of the stimulus. Furthermore, we replicated findings for sustained attention processes with highest fixation densities for the head region of the displayed human being. The third study (section 2.3), tackled the other mechanism proposed in the attention dichotomy, the bottom-up influence. Specifically, we reduced the available contextual information of a scene by using a gaze-contingent display, in which only the currently fixated regions would be visible to the viewer, while the remaining image would remain masked. Thereby, participants had to voluntarily change their gaze in order to explore the stimulus. First, results revealed a replication of a social bias in free-viewing displays. Second, the preference to select social features was also evident in gaze-contingent displays. Third, we find higher recurrent gaze patterns for social images compared to non-social ones for both viewing modalities. Taken together, these findings imply a top-down driven preference for social features largely independent of contextual information. Importantly, for all experiments, we took saliency predictions of different computational algorithms into consideration to ensure that the observed social bias was not a result of high physical saliency within these areas. For our second experiment, we even reduced the stimulus set to those images, which yielded lower mean and peak saliency for the side of the stimulus containing the social information, while considering algorithms based on low-level features, as well as pre-trained high-level features incorporated in deep learning algorithms. Our experiments offer new insights into single attentional mechanisms with regard to static social naturalistic scenes and enable a further understanding of basic social processing, contrasting from that of non-social attention. The replicability and consistency of our findings across experiments speaks for a robust effect, attributing social attention an exceptional role within the general attention construct, not only behaviorally, but potentially also on a neuronal level and further allowing implications for clinical populations with impaired social functioning.},
  subject      = {Aufmerksamkeit},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Ahrens2020,
  author    = {Ahrens, Lea Marlen},
  title     = {The Role of Attentional Control and Fear Acquisition and Generalization in Social Anxiety Disorder},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-17162},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-171622},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Although Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is one of the most prevalent mental disorders, still little is known about its development and maintenance. Cognitive models assume that deviations in attentional as well as associative learning processes play a role in the etiology of SAD. Amongst others, deficits in inhibitory attentional control as well as aberrations during fear generalization, which have already been observed in other anxiety disorders, are two candidate mechanisms that might contribute to the onset and retention of SAD. However, a review of the literature shows that there is a lack of research relating to these topics. Thus, the aim of the present thesis was to examine in which way individuals with SAD differ from healthy controls regarding attentional control and generalization of acquired fear during the processing of social stimuli. Study 1 tested whether impairment in the inhibitory control of attention is a feature of SAD, and how it might be influenced by emotional expression and gaze direction of an interactional partner. For this purpose, individuals with SAD and healthy controls (HC) participated in an antisaccade task with faces displaying different emotional expressions (angry, neutral and happy) and gaze directions (direct and averted) serving as target stimuli. While the participants performed either pro- or antisaccades in response to the peripherally presented faces, their gaze behavior was recorded via eye-tracking, and ratings of valence and arousal were obtained. Results revealed that both groups showed prolonged latencies and increased error rates in trials with correct anti- compared to prosaccades. However, there were no differences between groups with regard to response latency or error rates, indicating that SAD patients did not exhibit impairment on inhibitory attentional control in comparison to HC during eye-tracking. Possible explanations for this finding could be that reduced inhibitory attentional control in SAD only occurs under certain circumstances, for example, when these individuals currently run the risk of being negatively evaluated by others and not in the mere presence of phobic stimuli, or when the cognitive load of a task is so high that it cannot be unwound by compensatory strategies, such as putting more effort into a task. As not only deviations in attentional, but also associative learning processes might be pathogenic markers of SAD, these mechanisms were further addressed in the following experiments. Study 2 is the first that attempted to investigate the generalization of conditioned fear in patients with SAD. To this end, patients with SAD and HC were conditioned to two neutral female faces serving as conditioned stimuli (CS+: reinforced; CS-: non-reinforced) and a fearful face paired with a loud scream serving as unconditioned stimulus (US). Fear generalization was tested by presenting morphs of the two faces (GS: generalization stimuli), which varied in their similarity to the original faces. During the whole experiment, self-report ratings, heart rate (HR) and skin conductance responses (SCR) were recorded. Results demonstrated that SAD patients rated all stimuli as less pleasant and more arousing, and overestimated the occurrence of the US compared to HC, indicating a general hyperarousal in individuals with SAD. In addition, ratings and SCR indicated that both groups generalized their acquired fear from the CS+ to intermediate GSs as a function of their similarity to the CS+. However, except for the HR data, which indicated that only SAD patients but not HC displayed a generalization response in this measure, most of the results did not support the hypothesis that SAD is characterized by overgeneralization. A plausible reason for this finding could be that overgeneralization is just a key characteristic of some anxiety disorders and SAD is not one of them. Still, other factors, such as comorbidities in the individuals with SAD, could also have had an influence on the results, which is why overgeneralization was further examined in study 3. The aim of study 3 was to investigate fear generalization on a neuronal level. Hence, high (HSA) and low socially anxious participants (LSA) underwent a conditioning paradigm, which was an adaption of the experimental design used study 2 for EEG. During the experiment, steady-state visually evoked potentials (ssVEPs) and ratings of valence and arousal were recorded. Analyses revealed significant generalization gradients in all ratings with highest fear responses to the CS+ and a progressive decline of these reactions with increasing similarity to the CS-. In contrast, the generalization gradient on a neuronal level showed highest amplitudes for the CS+ and a reduction in amplitude to the most proximal, but not distal GSs in the ssVEP signal, which might be interpreted as lateral inhibition in the visual cortex. The observed dissociation among explicit and implicit measures points to different functions of behavioral and sensory cortical processes during fear generalization: While the ratings might reflect an individual's consciously increased readiness to react to threat, the lateral inhibition pattern in the occipital cortex might serve to maximize the contrast among stimuli with and without affective value and thereby improve adaptive behavior. As no group differences could be observed, the finding of study 2 that overgeneralization does not seem to be a marker of SAD is further consolidated. In sum, the conducted experiments suggest that individuals with SAD are characterized by a general hyperarousal during the exposition to disorder-relevant stimuli as indicated by enhanced arousal and reduced valence ratings of the stimuli compared to HC. However, the hypotheses that reduced inhibitory attentional control and overgeneralization of conditioned fear are markers of SAD were mostly not confirmed. Further research is required to elucidate whether they only occur under certain circumstances, such as high cognitive load (e.g. handling two tasks simultaneously) or social stress (e.g. before giving a speech), or whether they are not characteristics of SAD at all. With the help of these findings, new interventions for the treatment of SAD can be developed, such as attentional bias modification or discrimination learning.},
  subject      = {Sozialangst},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Erlbeck2015,
  author    = {Erlbeck, Helena},
  title     = {The event-related potentials Mismatch Negativity, P300, and N400: Effects of attentional modulation and application in patients with disorders of consciousness},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-121041},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {The present work comprises four studies dealing with the investigation of the auditory event-related potentials (ERP) Mismatch Negativity (MMN), P300, and N400 under different attentional instructions, and with their application in patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) to assess residual cognitive functioning. In guided interviews (study 1), practitioners working with DOC patients stated their general interest in and an objective need for the complementation of current diagnostic procedures by reliable and valid ERP-based methods. Subsequently, in study 2, simple oddball and semantic paradigms were applied to 19 behaviorally non-responsive DOC patients revealing the presence of at least one ERP in eight patients investigated. In the third and fourth study, specific attentional effects on ERPs were investigated in healthy participants to define optimal instructions and stimulus parameters. In study 3, MMN and N400 amplitudes were assessed in 18 participants, and in study 4, MMN and P300 amplitudes were assessed in 32 participants. Both studies included an ignore task (attention on simultaneous visual stimuli), a passive task, and a focused task and revealed distinct attentional effects on P300 and N400 with largest amplitudes in the focused task, smaller ones in the passive task and no ERP in the ignore task. An MMN was elicited in all tasks, but still, amplitudes differed as a function of task. In addition, study 4 included oddball paradigms comprising several deviants in different dimensions. Higher amplitudes were found in this multifeature paradigm compared to traditional oddball paradigms and larger amplitudes were elicited by deviants highly different from standards. It is concluded that ERPs represent a promising tool to complement clinical assessment of DOC patients. Application of ERP paradigms should include focused instructions, especially when using semantic material. Furthermore, multifeature paradigms have been proven especially useful eliciting large amplitudes and allowing for the investigation of several dimensions of deviants at the same time.},
  subject      = {Bewusstseinsst{\"o}rung},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Rubo2019,
  author    = {Rubo, Marius},
  title     = {Social Attention in the Laboratory, in Real Life and in Virtual Reality},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-18845},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-188452},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Social attention is a ubiquitous, but also enigmatic and sometimes elusive phenomenon. We direct our gaze at other human beings to see what they are doing and to guess their intentions, but we may also absorb social events en passant as they unfold in the corner of the eye. We use our gaze as a discrete communication channel, sometimes conveying pieces of information which would be difficult to explicate, but we may also find ourselves avoiding eye-contact with others in moments when self-disclosure is fear-laden. We experience our gaze as the most genuine expression of our will, but research also suggests considerable levels of predictability and automaticity in our gaze behavior. The phenomenon's complexity has hindered researchers from developing a unified framework which can conclusively accommodate all of its aspects, or from even agreeing on the most promising research methodologies. The present work follows a multi-methods approach, taking on several aspects of the phenomenon from various directions. Participants in study 1 viewed dynamic social scenes on a computer screen. Here, low-level physical saliency (i.e. color, contrast, or motion) and human heads both attracted gaze to a similar extent, providing a comparison of two vastly different classes of gaze predictors in direct juxtaposition. In study 2, participants with varying degrees of social anxiety walked in a public train station while their eye movements were tracked. With increasing levels of social anxiety, participants showed a relative avoidance of gaze at near compared to distant people. When replicating the experiment in a laboratory situation with a matched participant group, social anxiety did not modulate gaze behavior, fueling the debate around appropriate experimental designs in the field. Study 3 employed virtual reality (VR) to investigate social gaze in a complex and immersive, but still highly controlled situation. In this situation, participants exhibited a gaze behavior which may be more typical for real-life compared to laboratory situations as they avoided gaze contact with a virtual conspecific unless she gazed at them. This study provided important insights into gaze behavior in virtual social situations, helping to better estimate the possible benefits of this new research approach. Throughout all three experiments, participants showed consistent inter-individual differences in their gaze behavior. However, the present work could not resolve if these differences are linked to psychologically meaningful traits or if they instead have an epiphenomenal character.},
  subject      = {Aufmerksamkeit},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Breil2023,
  author    = {Breil, Christina},
  title     = {Look at me and I will feel you: eye contact and social understandig},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-27802},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-278021},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {One of the features that defines humans as extraordinarily social beings is their striking susceptibility to the gaze of others. The research reported in this dissertation was undertaken to advance our understanding of the role of gaze cues in low-level attentional and higher-order cognitive processes. In particular, effects of gaze were examined with regard to three aspects of human cognition: (1) social attention, (2) social interaction and (3) social understanding. Chapter 1 consists of three manuscripts that investigate the boundary conditions of attention capture by direct gaze and how gaze direction is integrated with facial context information. Manuscript 1 and 2 suggest two necessary requirements for attention capture by direct gaze: a meaningful holistic facial context and sharp foveal vision, respectively. Manuscript 3 shows approach/avoidance-congruency effects between gaze direction and emotion expression on attention. Chapter 2 of this dissertation explores the role of gaze in more naturalistic social scenarios. Manuscript 4 demonstrates that gaze behavior during a conversation shapes our perception of another person. Manuscript 5 builds on these findings by showing that these perceptions define our willingness to act in a prosocial way towards our interaction partner. Finally, chapter 3 adopts a broader perspective on social cognition research with a special focus on methodological aspects. Manuscript 6 is a review highlighting the significance of methodological aspects in social cognition research and stressing the importance of sophisticated decisions on task and stimulus materials. Manuscript 7 introduces a new instrument for the assessment of social understanding in adolescents. Initial application in a young sample group indicates that an understanding of another person's mental states is a capacity that is still developing throughout adolescence. Both manuscripts of this final chapter include eye tracking data that suggest a relationship between gaze behavior and social understanding, a finding that further emphasizes the complex and multifaceted nature of social cognition. I conclude from the findings of this dissertation that research can benefit from adopting a broad view in terms of methodological as well as temporal aspects in order to capture human social cognition in its entirety.},
  subject      = {Blick},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Brych2022,
  author    = {Brych, Mareike Kimberly},
  title     = {How movements and cognition interact: An investigation of spontaneous blinks},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-26737},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-267376},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {During natural behavior, cognitive processes constantly coincide with body movements such as head or eye movements or blinks. However, during experimental investigations of cognitive processes, movements are often highly restricted which is rather unnatural. In order to improve our understanding of natural behavior, this thesis investigates the interaction between cognition and movements by focusing on spontaneous blinks, which naturally interact with other body movements. Spontaneous blinks are inevitably connected to vision as they shut out incoming visual information. Both sensory-based and cognitive factors, for example, stimulus occurrence and evaluation, were reported to influence blink behavior. Our first study investigated if such influences are comparable for visual and non-visual input. The chosen experimental design allowed dissociating sensory-driven and cognitive influences, which then could be compared between the visual and auditory domain. Our results show that blinks are more strongly modulated during passive observation of visual input compared to auditory input. This modulation is however enhanced for both input modalities by an increased attentional demand. In addition, the cognitively defined meaning of a stimulus changes blink latency independent of the sensory domain. Overall, our findings show that spontaneous blinks and cognitive processes are linked beyond vision. Moreover, the underlying cognitive processes that influence blinks are largely the same across different sensory input indicating that blinks are profoundly integrated into our system. When investigating natural behavior, it is important to consider that movements rarely occur in isolation, but are executed side by side. As these movements interact and have a link to cognitive processes, the complexity of our system increases. In order to take this complexity into account, the second part of the experimental research focused on movement interactions, more specifically on the interactions between blinks, pupil size and speaking. Our results reveal that speech-related motor activity increases blink rate and pupil size as well as modulates blink timing. This is in line with previous research that described a relation between different body and eye movements. Importantly, each bodily-induced change in eye movements affects visual information intake. Therefore, different movements can be tightly linked to perceptual processes through complex interactions. Altogether, the work of this thesis provides rich evidence that movements and cognitive processes are deeply intertwined. Therefore, movements should be seen as an integral part of our system. Taking the relevance of movements and their interactions into account during experimental investigations is necessary in order to reveal a more realistic and complete picture of human natural behavior.},
  subject      = {Kognition},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Stegmann2021,
  author    = {Stegmann, Yannik},
  title     = {Electrocortical mechanisms of sustained attention during the acquisition and interaction of conditioned fear and anxiety},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-23770},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-237700},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Adapting defensive behavior to the characteristics of a threatening situation is a fundamental function of the brain. Particularly, threat imminence plays a major role for the organization of defensive responses. Acute threat prompts phasic physiological responses, which are usually associated with an intense feeling of fear. In contrast, diffuse and potentially threatening situations elicit a sustained state of anxious apprehension. Detection of the threatening stimulus defines the key event in this framework, initiating the transition from potential to acute threat. Consequently, attention to threat is crucial for supporting defensive behavior. The functions of attention are finely tuned to the characteristics of a threatening situation. Potential threat is associated with hypervigilance, in order to facilitate threat detection. Once a threatening stimulus has been identified, attention is selectively focused on the source of danger. Even though the concepts of selective attention and hypervigilance to threat are well established, evidence for their neural correlates remain scarce. Therefore, a major goal of this thesis is to elucidate the neural correlates of selective attention to acute threat and hypervigilance during potential threat. A second aim of this thesis is to provide a mechanistic account for the interaction of fear and anxiety. While contemporary models view fear and anxiety as mutually exclusive, recent findings for the neural networks of fear and anxiety suggest potential interactions. In four studies, aversive cue conditioning was used to induce acute threat, while context conditioning served as a laboratory model of potential threat. To quantify neural correlates of selective attention and hypervigilance, steady-state visual evoked potentials (ssVEPs) were measured as an index of visuocortical responding. Study 1 compared visuocortical responses to acute and potential threat for high versus low trait-anxious individuals. All individuals demonstrated enhanced electrocortical responses to the central cue in the acute threat condition, suggesting evidence for the neural correlate of selective attention. However, only low anxious individuals revealed facilitated processing of the contexts in the potential threat condition, reflecting a neural correlate of hypervigilance. High anxious individuals did not discriminate among contexts. These findings contribute to the notion of aberrational processing of potential threat for high anxious individuals. Study 2 and 3 realized orthogonal combinations of cue and context conditioning to investigate potential interactions of fear and anxiety. In contrast to Study 1 and 2, Study 3 used verbal instructions to induce potentially threatening contexts. Besides ssVEPs, threat ratings and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were recorded as efferent indices of defensive responding. None of these studies found further evidence for the neural correlates of hypervigilance and selective attention. However, results for ratings and SCRs revealed additive effects of fear and anxiety, suggesting that fear and anxiety are not mutually exclusive, but interact linearly to organize and facilitate defensive behavior. Study 4 tested ssVEPs to more ecologically valid forms of context conditioning, using flickering video stimuli of virtual offices to establish context representations. Contrary to expectations, results revealed decreased visuocortical responses during sustained presentations of anxiety compared to neutral contexts. A disruption of ssVEP signals eventually suggests interferences by continuously changing video streams which are enhanced as a function of motivational relevance. In summary, this thesis provided evidence for the neural correlates of attention only for isolated forms of fear and anxiety, but not for their interaction. In contrast, an additive interaction model of fear and anxiety for measures of defensive responding offers a new perspective on the topography of defensive behavior.},
  subject      = {Furcht},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Reutter2019,
  author    = {Reutter, Mario},
  title     = {Biologische Marker f{\"u}r Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungen bei sozialer {\"A}ngstlichkeit und deren Modifikation},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-17870},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-178706},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Diese Dissertationsschrift besch{\"a}ftigt sich mit biologischen Korrelaten von Aufmerksamkeits-verzerrungen und eruiert deren Modifikation in einem l{\"a}ngsschnittlich angelegten Experiment. Hierf{\"u}r wurden {\"u}ber 100 sozial-{\"a}ngstliche Teilnehmer mit Hilfe einer Screening-Prozedur gewonnen und hinsichtlich der Auspr{\"a}gung einer ereigniskorrelierten Lateralisation namens „N2pc" untersucht. W{\"a}hrend der ersten Labormessung indizierte die N2pc bei der Bearbeitung eines Dot Probe Paradigmas einen mittelgroßen, statistisch hochbedeutsamen Attentional Bias hin zu w{\"u}tenden Gesichtern im Vergleich zu neutralen. Das hierf{\"u}r klassischerweise verwendete Maß von Reaktionszeitunterschieden hingegen konnte diese Verzerrung der Aufmerksamkeit nicht abbilden. Ferner zeigten weder die elektrophysiologische noch die behaviorale Messgr{\"o}ße einen Zusammenhang mit Frageb{\"o}gen sozialer Angst, was teilweise auf ein Fehlen interner Konsistenz zur{\"u}ckgef{\"u}hrt werden kann. Im weiteren Verlauf absolvierten die {\"u}berwiegend weiblichen Teilnehmer an acht unterschiedlichen Terminen {\"u}ber zwei bis vier Wochen fast 7000 Durchg{\"a}nge eines Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungsmodifikationstrainings oder einer aktiven Kontrollprozedur. Daraufhin zeigte sich eine Ausl{\"o}schung der ereigniskorrelierten Lateralisation, allerdings in einem sp{\"a}teren Zeitfenster als erwartet. Dieses Verschwinden des Attentional Bias blieb bis elf Wochen nach Ende der Trainingsprozedur stabil. Außerdem trat dieselbe Modifikation ebenfalls f{\"u}r die Kontrollgruppe auf. Die selbstberichtete Schwere der Symptomauspr{\"a}gung ver{\"a}nderte sich zwar nicht, allerdings konnte eine Reduktion des Pers{\"o}nlichkeitsmerkmals Neurotizismus verzeichnet werden, welches konzeptuell mit dem Begriff der {\"A}ngstlichkeit eng verwoben ist. Durch explorative Folgeanalysen konnte eine st{\"a}rkere Modulation der rechten Großhirnh{\"a}lfte, also durch Reize im linken visuellen Halbfeld aufgedeckt werden. Eine Neuberechnung des Attentional Bias separat f{\"u}r jede Hemisph{\"a}re scheint daher auch f{\"u}r k{\"u}nftige Untersuchungen angebracht. Ferner wurde als Tr{\"a}ger der Modifikation {\"u}ber die Zeit eine Ver{\"a}nderung der Hyperpolarisation nach der N2-Komponente identifiziert. Ob durch eine Anpassung der Prozedur eine Modulation einer fr{\"u}heren ereigniskorrelierten Komponente erzielt werden kann, bleibt zum aktuellen Zeitpunkt unbeantwortet.},
  subject      = {Attention},
  language  = {de}
}