@article{AndreattaPauli2015,
  author    = {Andreatta, Marta and Pauli, Paul},
  title     = {Appetitive vs. aversive conditioning in humans},
  series = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience},
  volume    = {9},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience},
  number    = {128},
  doi       = {10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00128},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-148614},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {In classical conditioning, an initially neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) becomes associated with a biologically salient event (unconditioned stimulus, US), which might be pain (aversive conditioning) or food (appetitive conditioning). After a few associations, the CS is able to initiate either defensive or consummatory responses, respectively. Contrary to aversive conditioning, appetitive conditioning is rarely investigated in humans, although its importance for normal and pathological behaviors (e.g., obesity, addiction) is undeniable. The present study intents to translate animal findings on appetitive conditioning to humans using food as an US. Thirty-three participants were investigated between 8 and 10 am without breakfast in order to assure that they felt hungry. During two acquisition phases, one geometrical shape (avCS+) predicted an aversive US (painful electric shock), another shape (appCS+) predicted an appetitive US (chocolate or salty pretzel according to the participants' preference), and a third shape (CS) predicted neither US. In a extinction phase, these three shapes plus a novel shape (NEW) were presented again without US delivery. Valence and arousal ratings as well as startle and skin conductance (SCR) responses were collected as learning indices. We found successful aversive and appetitive conditioning. On the one hand, the avCS+ was rated as more negative and more arousing than the CS and induced startle potentiation and enhanced SCR. On the other hand, the appCS+ was rated more positive than the CS and induced startle attenuation and larger SCR. In summary, we successfully confirmed animal findings in (hungry) humans by demonstrating appetitive learning and normal aversive learning.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Bertolucci2008,
  author    = {Bertolucci, Franco},
  title     = {Operant and classical learning in Drosophila melanogaster: the ignorant gene (ign)},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-33984},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2008},
  abstract  = {One of the major challenges in neuroscience is to understand the neuronal processes that underlie learning and memory. For example, what biochemical pathways underlie the coincidence detection between stimuli during classical conditioning, or between an action and its consequences during operant conditioning? In which neural substructures is this information stored? How similar are the pathways mediating these two types of associative learning and at which level do they diverge? The fly Drosophila melanogaster is an appropriate model organism to address these questions due to the availability of suitable learning paradigms and neurogenetic tools. It permits an extensive study of the functional role of the gene S6KII which in Drosophila had been found to be differentially involved in classical and operant conditioning (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz et al., 2004). Genomic rescue experiments showed that olfactory conditioning in the Tully machine, a paradigm for Pavlovian olfactory conditioning, depends on the presence of an intact S6KII gene. This rescue was successfully performed on both the null mutant and a partial deletion, suggesting that the removal of the phosphorylating unit of the kinase was the main cause of the functional defect. The GAL4/UAS system was used to achieve temporal and spatial control of S6KII expression. It was shown that expression of the kinase during the adult stage was essential for the rescue. This finding ruled out a developmental origin of the mutant learning phenotype. Furthermore, targeted spatial rescue of S6KII revealed a requirement in the mushroom bodies and excluded other brain structures like the median bundle, the antennal lobes and the central complex. This pattern is very similar to the one previously identified with the rutabaga mutant (Zars et al., 2000). Experiments with the double mutant rut, ign58-1 suggest that both rutabaga and S6KII operate in the same signalling pathway. Previous studies had already shown that deviating results from operant and classical conditioning point to different roles for S6KII in the two types of learning (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz, 2002). This conclusion was further strengthened by the defective performance of the transgenic lines in place learning and their normal behavior in olfactory conditioning. A novel type of learning experiment, called "idle experiment", was designed. It is based on the conditioning of the walking activity and represents a purely operant task, overcoming some of the limitations of the "standard" heat-box experiment, a place learning paradigm. The novel nature of the idle experiment allowed exploring "learned helplessness" in flies, unveiling astonishing similarities to more complex organisms such as rats, mice and humans. Learned helplessness in Drosophila is found only in females and is sensitive to antidepressants.},
  subject      = {Klassische Konditionierung},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Brembs2000,
  author    = {Brembs, Bj{\"o}rn},
  title     = {An Analysis of Associative Learning in Drosophila at the Flight Simulator},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-1039},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2000},
  abstract  = {Most natural learning situations are of a complex nature and consist of a tight conjunction of the animal's behavior (B) with the perceived stimuli. According to the behavior of the animal in response to these stimuli, they are classified as being either biologically neutral (conditioned stimuli, CS) or important (unconditioned stimuli, US or reinforcer). A typical learning situation is thus identified by a three term contingency of B, CS and US. A functional characterization of the single associations during conditioning in such a three term contingency has so far hardly been possible. Therefore, the operational distinction between classical conditioning as a behavior-independent learning process (CS-US associations) and operant conditioning as essentially behavior-dependent learning (B-US associations) has proven very valuable. However, most learning experiments described so far have not been successful in fully separating operant from classical conditioning into single-association tasks. The Drosophila flight simulator in which the relevant behavior is a single motor variable (yaw torque), allows for the first time to completely separate the operant (B-US, B-CS) and the classical (CS-US) components of a complex learning situation and to examine their interactions. In this thesis the contributions of the single associations (CS-US, B-US and B-CS) to memory formation are studied. Moreover, for the first time a particularly prominent single association (CS-US) is characterized extensively in a three term contingency. A yoked control shows that classical (CS-US) pattern learning requires more training than operant pattern learning. Additionally, it can be demonstrated that an operantly trained stimulus can be successfully transferred from the behavior used during training to a new behavior in a subsequent test phase. This result shows unambiguously that during operant conditioning classical (CS-US) associations can be formed. In an extension to this insight, it emerges that such a classical association blocks the formation of an operant association, which would have been formed without the operant control of the learned stimuli. Instead the operant component seems to develop less markedly and is probably merged into a complex three-way association. This three-way association could either be implemented as a sequential B-CS-US or as a hierarchical (B-CS)-US association. The comparison of a simple classical (CS-US) with a composite operant (B, CS and US) learning situation and of a simple operant (B-US) with another composite operant (B, CS and US) learning situation, suggests a hierarchy of predictors of reinforcement. Operant behavior occurring during composite operant conditioning is hardly conditioned at all. The associability of classical stimuli that bear no relation to the behavior of the animal is of an intermediate value, as is operant behavior alone. Stimuli that are controlled by operant behavior accrue associative strength most easily. If several stimuli are available as potential predictors, again the question arises which CS-US associations are formed? A number of different studies in vertebrates yielded amazingly congruent results. These results inspired to examine and compare the properties of the CS-US association in a complex learning situation at the flight simulator with these vertebrate results. It is shown for the first time that Drosophila can learn compound stimuli and recall the individual components independently and in similar proportions. The attempt to obtain second-order conditioning with these stimuli, yielded a relatively small effect. In comparison with vertebrate data, blocking and sensory preconditioning experiments produced conforming as well as dissenting results. While no blocking could be found, a sound sensory preconditioning effect was obtained. Possible reasons for the failure to find blocking are discussed and further experiments are suggested. The sensory preconditioning effect found in this study is revealed using simultaneous stimulus presentation and depends on the amount of preconditioning. It is argued that this effect is a case of 'incidental learning', where two stimuli are associated without the need of reinforcement. Finally, the implications of the results obtained in this study for the general understanding of memory formation in complex learning situations are discussed.},
  subject      = {Taufliege},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Gruber2010,
  author    = {Gruber, Franz Andreas},
  title     = {Untersuchung zur Regulation der Expression des zuckerkonditionierten Verhaltens bei Drosophila melanogaster},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-48802},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {In dieser Doktorarbeit habe ich die Regulation der Expression des zuckerbelohnten Verhaltens durch den F{\"u}tterungszustand bei Drosophila melanogaster untersucht. Die Fliegen k{\"o}nnen w{\"a}hrend einer Trainingsphase mit Hilfe einer Zuckerbelohnung auf einen bestimmten Duft konditioniert werden. Nach dem Training k{\"o}nnen die Fliegen dann auf das olfaktorische Ged{\"a}chtnis getestet werden. Die Bereitschaft das zuckerkonditionierte Ged{\"a}chtnis im Test zu zeigen wird vom F{\"u}tterungszustand kontrolliert, wie ich in {\"U}bereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen fr{\"u}herer Arbeiten demonstrierte (Tempel et al. 1983; Gruber 2006; Krashes et al. 2008). Nur nicht gef{\"u}tterte Fliegen exprimieren das Ged{\"a}chtnis, w{\"a}hrend F{\"u}tterungen bis kurz vor dem Test eine reversibel supprimierende Wirkung haben. Einen {\"a}hnlichen regulatorischen Einfluss {\"u}bt der Futterentzug auch auf die Expression anderer futterbezogener Verhaltensweisen, wie z.B. die naive Zuckerpr{\"a}ferenz, aus. Nachdem ich den drastischen Einfluss des F{\"u}tterungszustands auf die Auspr{\"a}gung des zuckerkonditionierten Verhaltens gezeigt bzw. best{\"a}tigt hatte, habe ich nach verhaltensregulierenden Faktoren gesucht, die bei einer F{\"u}tterung die Ged{\"a}chtnisexpression unterdr{\"u}cken. Als m{\"o}gliche Kandidaten untersuchte ich Parameter, die zum Teil bereits bei verschiedenen futterbezogenen Verhaltensweisen unterschiedlicher Tierarten als „S{\"a}ttigungssignale" identifiziert worden waren (Marty et al. 2007; Powley and Phillips 2004; Havel 2001; Bernays and Chapman 1974; Simpson and Bernays 1983; Gelperin 1971a). Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass weder die „ern{\"a}hrende" Eigenschaft des Futters, noch ein durch Futteraufnahme bedingter Anstieg der internen Glukosekonzentration f{\"u}r die Suppression des zuckerkonditionierten Ged{\"a}chtnisses notwendig sind. Die Unterdr{\"u}ckung der Ged{\"a}chtnisexpression kann auch nicht durch Unterschiede in den aufgenommenen Futtermengen, die als verhaltensinhibitorische Dehnungssignale des Verdauungstrakts wirken k{\"o}nnten, oder mit der St{\"a}rke des s{\"u}ßen Geschmacks erkl{\"a}rt werden. Die Suppression des zuckerbelohnten Verhaltens folgte den Konzentrationen der gef{\"u}tterten Substanzen und war unabh{\"a}ngig von deren chemischen Spezifit{\"a}t. Deshalb wird die Osmolarit{\"a}t des aufgenommenen Futters als ein entscheidender Faktor f{\"u}r die Unterdr{\"u}ckung der zuckerkonditionierten Ged{\"a}chtnisexpression angenommen. Weil nur inkorporierte Substanzen einen Unterdr{\"u}ckungseffekt hatten, wird ein osmolarit{\"a}tsdetektierender Mechanismus im K{\"o}rper 67 postuliert, wahrscheinlich im Verdauungstrakt und/oder der H{\"a}molymphe. Die H{\"a}molymphosmolarit{\"a}t ist als „S{\"a}ttigungssignal" bei einigen wirbellosen Tieren bereits nachgewiesen worden (Bernays and Chapman 1974; Simpson and Raubenheimer 1993; Gelperin 1971a; Phifer and Prior 1985). Deshalb habe ich mit Hilfe genetischer Methoden und ohne die Fliegen zu f{\"u}ttern, versucht {\"u}ber einen k{\"u}nstlich induzierten Anstieg der Trehaloseund Lipidkonzentrationen die Osmolarit{\"a}t der H{\"a}molymphe in Drosophila zu erh{\"o}hen. Eine solche konzentrationserh{\"o}hende Wirkung f{\"u}r Lipide und die Trehalose, dem Hauptblutzucker der Insekten, ist bereits f{\"u}r das adipokinetische Hormon (AKH), das von Zellen der Corpora cardiaca exprimiert wird, nachgewiesen worden (Kim and Rulifson 2004; Lee and Park 2004; Isabel et al. 2005). Es stellte sich heraus, dass die k{\"u}nstliche Stimulierung AKH-produzierender Neurone das zuckerkonditionierten Verhalten tempor{\"a}r, reversible und selektiv unterdr{\"u}ckt. Gleiche Behandlungen hatten keinen Effekt auf ein aversiv konditioniertes olfaktorisches Ged{\"a}chtnis oder ein naives Zuckerpr{\"a}ferenzverhalten. Wie aus dieser Arbeit hervorgeht, stellt wahrscheinlich die Osmolarit{\"a}t des Verdauungstrakts und der H{\"a}molymphe oder nur der H{\"a}molymphe ein physiologisches Korrelat zum F{\"u}tterungszustand dar und wirkt als unterdr{\"u}ckendes Signal. Dass F{\"u}tterungen das zuckerkonditionierte Verhalten und die Zuckerpr{\"a}ferenz supprimieren, die k{\"u}nstliche Stimulation AKH-produzierender Zellen aber selektiv nur die zuckerbelohnte Ged{\"a}chtnisexpression unterdr{\"u}ckt, deutet auf mindestens zwei unterschiedliche „S{\"a}ttigungssignalwege" hin. Außerdem macht es deutlich wie uneinheitlich futterbezogene Verhaltensweisen, wie das zuckerbelohnte Verhalten und die naive Zuckerpr{\"a}ferenz, reguliert werden.},
  subject      = {Taufliege},
  language  = {de}
}
@article{HerzogAndreattaSchneideretal.2021,
  author    = {Herzog, Katharina and Andreatta, Marta and Schneider, Kristina and Schiele, Miriam A. and Domschke, Katharina and Romanos, Marcel and Deckert, J{\"u}rgen and Pauli, Paul},
  title     = {Reducing Generalization of Conditioned Fear: Beneficial Impact of Fear Relevance and Feedback in Discrimination Training},
  series = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume    = {12},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2021.665711},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-239970},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Anxiety patients over-generalize fear, possibly because of an incapacity to discriminate threat and safety signals. Discrimination trainings are promising approaches for reducing such fear over-generalization. Here we investigated the efficacy of a fear-relevant vs. a fear-irrelevant discrimination training on fear generalization and whether the effects are increased with feedback during training. Eighty participants underwent two fear acquisition blocks, during which one face (conditioned stimulus, CS+), but not another face (CS-), was associated with a female scream (unconditioned stimulus, US). During two generalization blocks, both CSs plus four morphs (generalization stimuli, GS1-GS4) were presented. Between these generalization blocks, half of the participants underwent a fear-relevant discrimination training (discrimination between CS+ and the other faces) with or without feedback and the other half a fear-irrelevant discrimination training (discrimination between the width of lines) with or without feedback. US expectancy, arousal, valence ratings, and skin conductance responses (SCR) indicated successful fear acquisition. Importantly, fear-relevant vs. fear-irrelevant discrimination trainings and feedback vs. no feedback reduced generalization as reflected in US expectancy ratings independently from one another. No effects of training condition were found for arousal and valence ratings or SCR. In summary, this is a first indication that fear-relevant discrimination training and feedback can improve the discrimination between threat and safety signals in healthy individuals, at least for learning-related evaluations, but not evaluations of valence or (physiological) arousal.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{PamirSzyszkaScheineretal.2014,
  author    = {Pamir, Evren and Szyszka, Paul and Scheiner, Ricarda and Nawrot, Martin P.},
  title     = {Rapid learning dynamics in individual honeybees during classical conditioning},
  series = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience},
  volume    = {8},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience},
  number    = {313},
  issn      = {1662-5153},
  doi       = {10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00313},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-115365},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {Associative learning in insects has been studied extensively by a multitude of classical conditioning protocols. However, so far little emphasis has been put on the dynamics of learning in individuals. The honeybee is a well-established animal model for learning and memory. We here studied associative learning as expressed in individual behavior based on a large collection of data on olfactory classical conditioning (25 datasets, 3298 animals). We show that the group-averaged learning curve and memory retention score confound three attributes of individual learning: the ability or inability to learn a given task, the generally fast acquisition of a conditioned response (CR) in learners, and the high stability of the CR during consecutive training and memory retention trials. We reassessed the prevailing view that more training results in better memory performance and found that 24 h memory retention can be indistinguishable after single-trial and multiple-trial conditioning in individuals. We explain how inter-individual differences in learning can be accommodated within the Rescorla Wagner theory of associative learning. In both data-analysis and modeling we demonstrate how the conflict between population-level and single-animal perspectives on learning and memory can be disentangled.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{StegmannAndreattaPaulietal.2021,
  author    = {Stegmann, Yannik and Andreatta, Marta and Pauli, Paul and Wieser, Matthias J.},
  title     = {Associative learning shapes visual discrimination in a web-based classical conditioning task},
  series = {Scientific Reports},
  volume    = {11},
  journal   = {Scientific Reports},
  number    = {1},
  doi       = {10.1038/s41598-021-95200-6},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-260480},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Threat detection plays a vital role in adapting behavior to changing environments. A fundamental function to improve threat detection is learning to differentiate between stimuli predicting danger and safety. Accordingly, aversive learning should lead to enhanced sensory discrimination of danger and safety cues. However, studies investigating the psychophysics of visual and auditory perception after aversive learning show divergent findings, and both enhanced and impaired discrimination after aversive learning have been reported. Therefore, the aim of this web-based study is to examine the impact of aversive learning on a continuous measure of visual discrimination. To this end, 205 participants underwent a differential fear conditioning paradigm before and after completing a visual discrimination task using differently oriented grating stimuli. Participants saw either unpleasant or neutral pictures as unconditioned stimuli (US). Results demonstrated sharpened visual discrimination for the US-associated stimulus (CS+), but not for the unpaired conditioned stimuli (CS-). Importantly, this finding was irrespective of the US's valence. These findings suggest that associative learning results in increased stimulus salience, which facilitates perceptual discrimination in order to prioritize attentional deployment.},
  language  = {en}
}