@phdthesis{Kaltenpoth2006,
  author    = {Kaltenpoth, Martin},
  title     = {Protective bacteria and attractive pheromones - symbiosis and chemical communication in beewolves (Philanthus spp., Hymenoptera, Crabronidae)},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-20867},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2006},
  abstract  = {BACTERIAL ENDOSYMBIONTS OF BEEWOLVES Symbiotic interactions between different species are ubiquitous and essential components of the natural world and have probably affected the evolution of every living organism. Insects are the most diverse metazoan class on earth, and they benefit from the extensive metabolic potential of microorganisms in a wide variety of symbiotic associations. The vast majority of well-studied insect-microbe symbioses to date are nutritional interactions in which the symbionts provide their hosts with essential nutrients. Some cases, however, have been described in which symbiotic bacteria play an important role in intraspecific olfactory communication or serve as a defense against pathogens or parasitoids. This thesis reports on a unique and highly specialized association between a digger wasp, the European beewolf (Philanthus triangulum, Hymenoptera, Crabronidae), and actinomycete bacteria. In contrast to all other known symbioses, the beewolf bacteria are cultivated in the reservoirs of unique antennal glands in female beewolves. The female secretes the bacteria into its subterranean brood cells prior to oviposition. Several days later, when the beewolf larva has finished feeding on the paralyzed honeybees that had been provisioned by the mother, it takes up the bacteria and applies them to the cocoon silk during the spinning process. On the cocoon, the symbionts play an important role in reducing the incidence of fungal infestation and thereby significantly enhance the survival probability of the larva in the cocoon during the long and potentially very dangerous inactive phase of hibernation in the underground brood cell. Observations of beewolf larvae as well as experiments in which female beewolf larvae were reared in the absence of the bacteria suggest that the symbionts are transmitted vertically from mothers to daughters. Presumably, the bacteria are taken up from the cocoon during eclosion and incorporated into the antennal gland reservoirs. Phylogenetic analyses of hosts and symbionts as well as artificial transfer experiments are necessary to investigate whether horizontal transmission of bacteria between beewolf species may occasionally occur. Genetic analyses revealed that the symbionts constitute an undescribed species of the genus Streptomyces within the eubacterial family Actinomycetaceae. 16S rDNA primers and an oligonucletide probe were designed for the specific detection of the Philanthus endosymbionts by PCR and fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH). By PCR-based screening, closely related endosymbionts were found in 28 Philanthus species and subspecies. By contrast, no symbionts could be detected in closely related genera of the subfamily Philanthinae (Aphilanthops, Clypeadon, Cerceris), indicating that the symbiosis might be restricted to the genus Philanthus. Based on almost complete 16S rRNA gene sequence data, the symbionts of all analyzed Philanthus species formed a monophyletic clade within the genus Streptomyces, indicating that the symbiosis is highly specific and most likely the product of a long history of coevolution and cospeciation. Sequence divergences among symbionts suggest an origin of the Philanthus- Streptomyces association about 26-67 million years ago, which may have coincided with the origin of the genus Philanthus. On the basis of 16S rDNA sequences and ultrastructural data, the new taxon 'Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi' is proposed for the antennal symbionts of Philanthus species, with symbionts from different host species being treated as ecotypes and named according to their hosts (e.g. 'Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi triangulum'). It is not yet clear how the bacteria benefit from the association with Philanthus species. Certainly, they obtain an unoccupied and presumably competition-free niche in the beewolf antennae and a reliable transmission route to the next generation. Additionally, several pieces of evidence suggest that they may also receive nutrients from their host: (1) Females secrete massive amounts of bacteria into each brood cell and sometimes construct several brood cells per day; thus, the bacteria have to grow quickly inside the antennal gland reservoirs to replenish the stock for further brood cells. (2) The reservoirs are surrounded by class 3 gland cells that may supply the bacteria with nutrients (e.g. amino acids). (3) One of the walls bordering the antennal gland is of a net-like structure, thus, possibly allowing hemolymph to enter the reservoir lumen and provide nutrients to the symbionts. This possibility is further substantiated by chemical analyses of the hydrocarbon profile of the antennal gland secretion and female hemolymph, which revealed very similar compositions. The beewolf-Streptomyces symbiosis constitutes the first known case of bacteria being cultivated in insect antennae and one of the few examples involving the pharmaceutically important group of actinomycete bacteria as insect endosymbionts. Further studies on ecological and evolutionary aspects of the symbiosis will provide valuable insights into the importance of actinomycete bacteria for pathogen defense in insects and may also identify novel secondary metabolites with antibiotic properties that might prove useful for human medicine. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION AND MATE CHOICE IN THE EUROPEAN BEEWOLF Chemical signals constitute both the most ancient and the most common form of communication among organisms. In insects, pheromones play an essential role in mediating intraspecific communication. Many recent studies have investigated the importance of insect olfactory signals in the context of courtship and mating. However, since most of these studies have focused on female pheromones, male sex pheromones have as yet received little attention despite their potential ecological as well as evolutionary importance for mate attraction and mate choice. Male European beewolves establish and defend small territories that they mark with a secretion from cephalic glands. Presumably, the secretion acts as a sex pheromone and attracts receptive females to the territory. Since male territories are clumped around female nesting sites, females have the opportunity to choose among potential mates. The marking pheromone of male beewolves varies with kinship, and it is demonstrated here that geographic origin, age and size also affect the amount and/or composition of the pheromone. Thus, the marking secretion contains information on a variety of male characters that may be important in the context of female choice. Both genetic distance ("optimal outbreeding") and overall genetic quality ("good genes") of a male might influence female mating decisions in the European beewolf. Polymorphic microsatellite markers are presented for the European beewolf that facilitate female choice experiments by genetic paternity analysis.},
  subject      = {Philanthus},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Menzel2009,
  author    = {Menzel, Florian},
  title     = {Mechanisms and adaptive significance of interspecific associations between tropical ant species},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-37251},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Aggression between ants from different colonies or species is ubiquitous. Exceptions to this rule exist in the form of supercolonies (within a species) and interspecific associations (between species). Probably the most intimate interspecific association is the parabiosis, where two ant species live together in a common nest. They keep their brood separate but jointly use trails and often share food resources. Parabioses are restricted to few species pairings and occur in South American and Southeast Asian rainforests. While the South American parabioses have been studied, albeit poorly, almost nothing is known about their Southeast Asian counterparts. My PhD project focuses on Southeast Asian parabioses between the myrmicine Crematogaster modiglianii Emery 1900 and the considerably larger formicine Camponotus rufifemur Emery 1900. The two species frequently nest together in hollow trees in the tropical lowland rainforest of Borneo. The basic question of my PhD project is why these two species live together. I investigated both proximate and ultimate aspects of this question. For comparative purposes, I included studies on a trail-sharing association in the same habitat. On the proximate level, I investigated which mechanisms facilitate tolerance towards hetero-spe¬ci¬fic nestmates. Ants generally discriminate nestmates from non-nestmates via cuticular hydro¬carbons that function as colony recognition cues. I studied the specificity of nestmate recognition within and between the two parabiotic species. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), I analyzed the cuticular substances in both ant species to find potential differences to non-parabiotic species, and to estimate the substance overlap among the two species. A high substance overlap would e.g. suggest that interspecific tolerance is caused by chemical mimicry. Finally, bioassays were conducted to evaluate the function of different cuticular compounds. Interspecific tolerance in the two parabiotic species was species-specific but not colony-specific. Ca. rufifemur tolerated all Cr. modiglianii individuals, even those from foreign colonies, but strongly attacked workers of other Crematogaster species. Cr. modiglianii, in turn, tolerated Ca. rufifemur workers of certain foreign colonies but attacked those of others. Chemical analyses revealed two sympatric, chemically distinct Ca. rufifemur varieties ('red' and 'black') with almost no hydrocarbon overlap. Cr. modiglianii only tolerated foreign Ca. rufifemur workers if they belonged to the same chemical variety as their own Ca. rufifemur partner. It also attacked other, non-parabiotic Camponotus species. Thus, reciprocal interspecific tolerance was restricted to the species Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur frequently tolerated conspecific non-nestmates of the same chemical variety. Minor workers were more often tolerated than majors, possibly because they possess two to three times lower hydrocarbon quantities per body surface than majors. In contrast, Cr. modiglianii nearly always attacked conspecific non-nestmates. Both species possessed hydrocarbons with considerably higher chain lengths than congeneric, non-parabiotic ant species. Long-chain hydrocarbons are less volatile than shorter ones and thus harder to perceive. They may thus considerably facilitate interspecific tolerance. Moreover, up to 98\% of the cuticular hydrocarbons in Ca. rufifemur were methylbranched alkenes, which are highly unusual among insect cuticular hydrocarbons. Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur had almost no hydrocarbons in common, refuting chemical mimicry as a possible cause of interspecific tolerance. The only hydrocarbons common to both species were two methylbranched alkenes, which constituted 89\% of the 'red' Ca. rufifemur hydrocarbon profile and also occurred in those Cr. modiglianii colonies that lived together with this Ca. rufifemur variety. Cr. modiglianii presumably acquired these two compounds from its red Ca. rufifemur partner. Cr. modiglianii was significantly less aggressive towards foreign Cr. modiglianii workers that were associated with the same Ca. rufifemur variety than to those associated with the respective other one. Hence, this species seemed to use recognition cues acquired from its parabiotic partner. Apart from hydrocarbons, both species possessed a set of hitherto unknown substances on their cuticle. The quantitative composition of the unknown compounds varied between parabiotic nests but was similar among the two species of a nest. They are probably produced in the Dufour glanf of Cr. modiglianii and transferred to their Ca. rufifemur partner. Possible transfer mechanisms include interspecific trophallaxis and 'mounting behaviour', where Cr. modiglianii climbed onto Ca. rufifemur workers without being displaced. Although the composition of the unknown compounds greatly varied between nests, they did not function as nestmate recognition cues since both species used hydrocarbons for nestmate recognition. However, the unknown compounds significantly reduced aggression in Ca. rufifemur. The ultimate, i.e. ecological and evolutionary aspects of my PhD research deal with potential costs and benefits that Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur may derive from the parabiotic association, their interactions with other species, and population genetic analyses. Additional studies on a trail-sharing association between three other ant species deal with two possible mechanisms that may cause or facilitate trail-sharing. Whether parabioses are parasitic, commensalistic, or mutualistic, is largely unknown and depends on the costs and benefits each party derives from the association. I therefore investigated food competition (as one of the most probable costs), differentiation of foraging niches (which can reduce competition), and several potential benefits of the parabiotic way of life. Besides, I studied interactions between the ant species and the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium. The foraging niches of the two species differed regarding foraging range, daily activity pattern, and food preferences. None of the two species aggressively displaced its partner species from baits. Thus, interference competition for food seemed to be low or absent. For both ant species, a number of benefits from the parabiotic lifestyle seem possible. They include interspecific trail-following, joint nest defence, provision of nest space by the partner species, food exchange via trophallaxis, and mutual brood care. If an ant species follows another species' pheromone trails, it can reach food resources found by the other species. As shown by artificial extract trails, Ca. rufifemur workers indeed followed trails of Cr. modiglianii but not vice versa. Thus, Ca. rufifemur benefited from Cr. modiglianii's knowledge on food sources (informational parasitism). In turn, Cr. modiglianii seemed to profit from nest defence by Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur majors are substantially larger than Cr. modiglianii workers. Although Cr. modiglianii often effectively defended the nest as well, it seemed likely that this species derived a benefit from its partner's defensive abilities. In neotropical parabioses (ant-gardens), mutualistic epiphytes play an important role in providing nest space. The neotropical Camponotus benefits its Crematogaster partner by planting epiphyte seeds, for which Crematogaster is too small. Similarly, the Bornean parabioses often were inhabited by the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium (Barg.-Petr.) Merr (Cecropiaceae). P. cordifolium seedlings, saplings and sometimes larger indivi¬duals abundantly grew at the entrances of parabiotic nests. However, P. cordifolium provides no additional nest space and, apart from nutritive elaiosomes, perianths, and extrafloral nectar probably plays a less important role for the ants than the neotropical epiphytes. In conclusion, the parabiosis is probably beneficial to both species. The main benefits seem to be nest defence (for Cr. modiglianii) and interspecific trail-following (for Ca. rufifemur). However, Ca. rufifemur seems to be more dependent on its partner than vice versa. For both parabiotic species, I analyzed mitochondrial DNA of ants from different regions in Borneo. My data suggest that there are four genetically and chemically distinct, but closely related varieties of Camponotus rufifemur. In contrast, Crematogaster modiglianii showed high genetic differentiation between distant populations but was not differentiated into genetic or chemical varieties. This argues against variety-specific cocladogenesis between Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur, although a less specific coevolution of the two species is highly likely. In Bornean rainforests, trail-sharing associations of Polyrhachis (Polyrhachis) ypsilon Emery 1887 and Camponotus (Colobopsis) saundersi Emery 1889 are common and often include further species such as Dolichoderus cuspidatus Smith 1857. I investigated a trail-sharing association between these three species and studied two mechanisms that may cause or facilitate these associations: interspecific trail-following, i.e. workers following another species' pheromone trail, and differential inter¬specific aggression. In trail-following assays, D. cuspidatus regularly followed extract trails of the other two species, thus probably parasitizing on their information on food sources. In contrast, only few P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi workers followed hetero¬speci¬fic extract trails. Hence, the association between P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi cannot be ex¬plained by foragers following heterospecific trails. In this case, trail-sharing may originate from few scout ants that do follow heterospecific pheromone trails and then lay their own trails. Interspecific aggression among P. ypsilon, Ca. saundersi and D. cuspidatus was strongly asymmetric, Ca. saundersi being submissive to the other two species. All three species discriminated between heterospecific workers from the same and a distant trail-sharing site. Thus, it seems likely that the species of a given trail-sharing site habituate to one another. Differential tolerance by dominant ant species may be mediated by selective habituation towards submissive species, and thereby influence the assembly of trail-sharing associations.},
  subject      = {Ameisen},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{MenzelBluethgenTolaschetal.2013,
  author    = {Menzel, Florian and Bl{\"u}thgen, Nico and Tolasch, Till and Conrad, J{\"u}rgen and Beifuss, Uwe and Beuerle, Till and Schmitt, Thomas},
  title     = {Crematoenones - a novel substance class exhibited by ants functions as appeasement signal},
  series = {Frontiers in Zoology},
  volume    = {10},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Zoology},
  number    = {32},
  issn      = {1742-9994},
  doi       = {10.1186/1742-9994-10-32},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-122595},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Background: Parasitic, commensalistic, and mutualistic guests in social insect colonies often circumvent their hosts' nestmate recognition system to be accepted. These tolerance strategies include chemical mimicry and chemical insignificance. While tolerance strategies have been studied intensively in social parasites, little is known about these mechanisms in non-parasitic interactions. Here, we describe a strategy used in a parabiotic association, i.e. two mutualistic ant species that regularly share a common nest although they have overlapping food niches. One of them, Crematogaster modiglianii, produces an array of cuticular compounds which represent a substance class undescribed in nature so far. They occur in high abundances, which suggests an important function in the ant's association with its partner Camponotus rufifemur. Results: We elucidated the structure of one of the main compounds from cuticular extracts using gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, chemical derivatizations and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The compound consists of two fused six-membered rings with two alkyl groups, one of which carries a keto functionality. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the identification of this substance class in nature. We suggest naming the compound crematoenone. In behavioural assays, crematoenones reduced interspecific aggression. Camponotus showed less aggression to allospecific cuticular hydrocarbons when combined with crematoenones. Thus, they function as appeasement substances. However, although the crematoenone composition was highly colony-specific, interspecific recognition was mediated by cuticular hydrocarbons, and not by crematoenones. Conclusions: Crematenones enable Crematogaster to evade Camponotus aggression, and thus reduce potential costs from competition with Camponotus. Hence, they seem to be a key factor in the parabiosis, and help Crematogaster to gain a net benefit from the association and thus maintain a mutualistic association over evolutionary time. To our knowledge, putative appeasement substances have been reported only once so far, and never between non-parasitic species. Since most organisms associated with social insects need to overcome their nestmate recognition system, we hypothesize that appeasement substances might play an important role in the evolution and maintenance of other mutualistic associations as well, by allowing organisms to reduce costs from antagonistic behaviour of other species.},
  language  = {en}
}