@phdthesis{Goetz2019,
  author    = {G{\"o}tz, Sebastian Reinhold},
  title     = {Nonlinear spectroscopy at the diffraction limit: probing ultrafast dynamics with shaped few-cycle laser pulses},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-19213},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-192138},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {An experimental setup for probing ultrafast dynamics at the diffraction limit was developed, characterized and demonstrated in the scope of the thesis, aiming for optical investigations while simultaneously approaching the physical limits on the length and timescale. An overview of this experimental setup was given in Chapter 2, as well as the considerations that led to the selection of the individual components. Broadband laser pulses with a length of 9.3 fs, close to the transform limit of 7.6 fs, were focused in a NA = 1.4 immersion oil objective, to the diffraction limit of below 300 nm (FWHM). The spatial focus shape was characterized with off-resonance gold nanorod scatterers scanned through the focal volume. For further insights into the functionality and limitations of the pulse shaper, its calibration procedure was reviewed. The deviations between designed and experimental pulse shapes were attributed to pulse-shaper artifacts, including voltage-dependent inter-layer as well as intra-layer LCD-pixel crosstalk, Fabry-P{\´e}rot-type reflections in the LCD layers, and space-time coupling. A pixel-dependent correction was experimentally carried out, which can be seen as an extension of the initial calibration to all possible voltage combinations of the two LCD layers. The capabilities of the experimental setup were demonstrated in two types of experiments, targeting the nonlinearity of gold (Chapter 3) as well as two-dimensional spectroscopy at micro-structured surfaces (Chapter 4). Investigating thin films, an upper bound for the absolute value for the imaginary part of the nonlinear refractive index of gold could be set to |n′′ 2 (Au)| < 0.6·10-16 m2/W, together with |n′ 2 (Au)| < 1.2·10-16 m2/W as an upper bound for the absolute value of the real part. Finite-difference time-domain simulations on y-shaped gold nanostructures indicated that a phase change of ∆Φ ≥ 0.07 rad between two plasmonic modes would induce a sufficient change in the spatial contrast of emission to the far-field to be visible in the experiment. As the latter could not be observed, this value of ∆Φ was determined as the upper bound for the experimentally induced phase change. An upper bound of 52 GW/cm2 was found for the damage threshold. In Chapter 4, a novel method for nonlinear spectroscopy on surfaces was presented. Termed coherent two-dimensional fluorescence micro-spectroscopy, it is capable of exploring ultrafast dynamics in nanostructures and molecular systems at the diffraction limit. Two-dimensional spectra of spatially isolated hotspots in structured thin films of fluorinated zinc phthalocyanine (F16ZnPc) dye were taken with a 27-step phase-cycling scheme. Observed artifacts in the 2D maps were identified as a consequence from deviations between the desired and the experimental pulse shapes. The optimization procedures described in Chapter 2 successfully suppressed the deviations to a level where the separation from the nonlinear sample response was feasible. The experimental setup and methods developed and presented in the scope of this thesis demonstrate its flexibility and capability to study microscopic systems on surfaces. The systems exemplarily shown are consisting of metal-organic dyes and metallic nanostructures, represent samples currently under research in the growing fields of organic semiconductors and plasmonics.},
  subject      = {Ultrakurzzeitspektroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Razinskas2018,
  author    = {Razinskas, Gary},
  title     = {Functional plasmonic nanocircuitry},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-166917},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {In this work, functional plasmonic nanocircuitry is examined as a key of revolutionizing state-of-the-art electronic and photonic circuitry in terms of integration density and transmission bandwidth. In this context, numerical simulations enable the design of dedicated devices, which allow fundamental control of photon flow at the nanometer scale via single or multiple plasmonic eigenmodes. The deterministic synthesis and in situ analysis of these eigenmodes is demonstrated and constitutes an indispensable requirement for the practical use of any device. By exploiting the existence of multiple eigenmodes and coherence - both not accessible in classical electronics - a nanoscale directional coupler for the ultrafast spatial and spatiotemporal coherent control of plasmon propagation is conceived. Future widespread application of plasmonic nanocircuitry in quantum technologies is boosted by the promising demonstrations of spin-optical and quantum plasmonic nanocircuitry.},
  subject      = {Nanooptik},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Kern2014,
  author    = {Kern, Johannes},
  title     = {Optical and electrical excitation of nanoantennas with atomic-scale gaps},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-115492},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {Nano-antennas are an emerging concept for the manipulation and control of optical fields at the sub-wavelength scale. In analogy to their radio- and micro-wave counterparts they provide an efficient link between propagating and localized fields. Antennas operating at optical frequencies are typically on the order of a few hundred nanometer in size and are fabricated from noble metals. Upon excitation with an external field the electron gas inside the antenna can respond resonantly, if the dimensions of the antenna are chosen appropriate. Consequently, the resonance wavelength depends on the antenna dimensions. The electron-density oscillation is a hybrid state of electron and photon and is called a localized plasmon resonance. The oscillating currents within the antenna constitute a source for enhanced optical near-fields, which are strongly localized at the metal surface. A particular interesting type of antennas are pairs of metal particles separated by a small insulating gap. For anti-symmetric gap modes charges of opposite sign reside across the gap. The dominating field-components are normal to the metal surface and due to the boundary conditions they are sizable only inside the gap. The attractive Coulomb interaction increases the surface-charge accumulation at the gap and enhanced optical fields occur within the insulating gap. The Coulomb interaction increases with decreasing gap size and extreme localization and strongest intensity enhancement is expected for small gap sizes. In this thesis optical antennas with extremely small gaps, just slightly larger than inter-atomic distances, are investigated by means of optical and electrical excitation. In the case of electrical excitation electron tunneling across the antenna gap is exploited. At the beginning of this thesis little was known about the optical properties of antennas with atomic scale gaps. Standard measurement techniques of field confinement and enhancement involving well-separated source, sample and detector are not applicable at atomic length-scales due to the interaction of the respective elements. Here, an elegant approach has been found. It is based on the fact that for closely-spaced metallic particles the energy splitting of a hybridized mode pair, consisting of symmetric and anti-symmetric mode, provides a direct measure for the Coulomb interaction over the gap. Gap antennas therefore possess an internal ruler which sensitively reports the size of the gap. Upon self-assembly side-by-side aligned nanorods with gap sizes ranging from 2 to 0.5nm could be obtained. These antennas exhibit various symmetric and anti-symmetric modes in the visible range. In order to reveal optical modes of all symmetries a novel scattering setup has been developed and is successfully applied. Careful analysis of the optical spectra and comparison to numerical simulations suggests that extreme field confinement and localization can occur in gaps down to 0.5 nm. This is possibly the limit of plasmonic enhancement since for smaller gaps electron tunneling as well as non-locality of the dielectric function affect plasmonic resonances. The strongly confined and intense optical fields provided by atomic-scale gaps are ideally suited for enhanced light-matter interaction. The interplay of intense optical-frequency fields and static electric fields or currents is of great interest for opto-electronic applications. In this thesis a concept has been developed, which allows for the electrical connection of optical antennas. By means of numerical simulations the concept was first verified for antennas with gap sizes on the order of 25 nm. It could be shown, that by attaching the leads at positions of a field minimum the resonant properties are nearly undisturbed. The resonance wavelengths shift only by a small amount with respect to isolated antennas and the numerically calculated near-field intensity enhancement is about 1000, which is just slightly lower than for an unconnected antenna. The antennas are fabricated from single-crystalline gold and exhibit superior optical and electrical properties. In particular, the conductivity is a factor of 4 larger with respect to multi-crystalline material, the resistance of the gap is as large as 1 TOhm and electric fields of at least 10^8 V/m can be continuously applied without damage. Optical scattering spectra reveal well-pronounced and tunable antenna resonances, which demonstrates the concept of electrically-connected antennas also experimentally. By combining atomic-scale gaps and electrically-connected optical antennas a novel sub-wavelength photon source has been realized. To this end an antenna featuring an atomic scale gap is electrically driven by quantum tunneling across the antenna gap. The optical frequency components of this fluctuating current are efficiently converted to photons by the antenna. Consequently, light generation and control are integrated into a planar single-material nano-structure. Tunneling junctions are realized by positioning gold nanoparticles into the antenna gap, using an atomic force microscope. The presence of a stable tunneling junction between antenna and particle is demonstrated by measuring its distinct current-voltage characteristic. A DC voltage is applied to the junction and photons are generated by inelastically tunneling electrons via the enhanced local density of photonic states provided by the antenna resonance. The polarization of the emitted light is found to be along the antenna axis and the directivity is given by the dipolar antenna mode. By comparing electroluminescence and scattering spectra of different antennas, it has been shown that the spectrum of the generated light is determined by the geometry of the antenna. Moreover, the light generation process is enhanced by two orders of magnitude with respect to a non-resonant structure. The controlled fabrication of the presented single-crystalline structures has not only pushed the frontiers of nano-technology, but the extreme confinement and enhancement of optical fields as well as the light generation by tunneling electrons lays a groundwork for a variety of fundamental studies and applications. Field localization down to the (sub-)nanometer scale is a prerequisite for optical spectroscopy with near-atomic resolution. Indeed, recently first pioneering experiments have achieved molecular resolution exploiting plasmon-enhanced Raman scattering. The small modal volume of antennas with atomic-scale gaps can lead to light-matter interaction in the strong coupling regime. Quantum electro-dynamical effects such as Rabi splitting or oscillations are likely when a single emitter is placed into resonant structures with atomic-scale gaps. The concept of electrically-connected optical antennas is expected to be widely applied within the emerging field of electro-plasmonics. The sub-wavelength photon source developed during this thesis will likely gain attention for future plasmonic nanocircuits. It is envisioned that in such a circuit the optical signal provided by the source is processed at ultrafast speed and nanometer-scales on the chip and is finally converted back into an electronic signal. An integrated optical transistor could be realized by means of photon-assisted tunneling. Moreover, it would be interesting to investigate, if it is possible to imprint the fermionic nature of electrons onto photons in order to realize an electrically-driven source of single photons. Non-classical light sources with the potential for on-chip integration could be built from electrically-connected antennas and are of great interest for quantum communication. To this end single emitters could be placed in the antenna gap or single electron tunneling could be achieved by means of a single-channel quantum point contact or the Coulomb-blockade effect.},
  subject      = {Nanooptik},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Mahapatra2007,
  author    = {Mahapatra, Suddhasatta},
  title     = {Formation and Properties of Epitaxial CdSe/ZnSe Quantum Dots : Conventional Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Related Techniques},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-32831},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2007},
  abstract  = {Albeit of high technological import, epitaxial self-assembly of CdSe/ZnSe QDs is non-trivial and still not clearly understood. The origin and attributes of these QDs are significantly different from those of their III-V and group-IV counterparts. For III-V and group-IV heterosystems, QD-formation is assigned to the Stranski Krastanow (SK) transition, wherein elastic relaxation of misfit strain leads to the formation of coherent three-dimensional (3D) islands, from a supercritically strained two-dimensional (2D) epilayer. Unfortunately, this phenomenon is inconspicuous for the CdSe/ZnSe heterosystem. Well-defined 3D islands are not readily formed in conventional molecular beam epitaxial (MBE) growth of CdSe on ZnSe. Consequently, several alternative approaches have been adopted to induce/enhance formation of QDs. This thesis systematically investigates three such alternative approaches, along with conventional MBE, with emphasis on the formation-mechanism of QDs, and optimization of their morphological and optical attributes. It is shown here that no distinct 3D islands are formed in MBE growth of CdSe on ZnSe. The surface of the CdSe layer represents a rough 2D layer, characterized by a dense array of shallow (<1nm) abutting mounds. In capped samples, the CdSe deposit forms an inhomogeneous CdZnSe quantum well (QW)-like structure. This ternary QW consists of local Cd-rich inclusions, which confine excitons three-dimensionally, and act as QDs. The density of such QDs is very high (~ 1012 cm-2). The QDs defined by the composition inhomogeneities of the CdZnSe QW presumably originate from the shallow mounds of the uncapped CdSe surface. By a technique wherein a CdSe layer is grown at a low temperature (TG = 230 °C) and subsequently annealed at a significantly higher temperature (TA =310 °C), tiny but distinct 3D islands are formed. In this work, the mechanism underlying the formation of these islands is reported. While the CdSe deposit forms a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer at TG = 230 °C, subsequent annealing at TA = 310 °C results in a thermally activated "up-climb" of adatoms onto two-dimensional clusters (or precursors) and concomitant nucleation of 3D islands. The areal density of QDs, achieved by this technique, is at least a decade lower than that typical for conventional MBE growth. It is demonstrated that further reduction is possible by delaying the temperature ramp-up to TA. In the second technique, formation of distinct islands is demonstrated by deposition of amorphous selenium (a-Se) onto a 2D CdSe epilayer at room temperature and its subsequent desorption at a higher temperature (TD = 230 °C). Albeit the self-assembled islands are large, they are severely truncated during subsequent capping with ZnSe, presumably due to segregation of Cd and Zn-alloying of the islands. The segregation phenomenon is analyzed in this work and correlated to the optical properties of the QDs. Additionally, very distinct vertical correlation of QDs in QD-superlattices, wherein the first QD-layer is grown by this technique and the subsequent ones by migration enhanced epitaxy (MEE), is reported. The process steps of the third variant technique, developed in course of this work, are very similar to those of the previous one-the only alteration being the substitution of selenium with tellurium as the cap-forming-material. This leads not only to large alteration of the morphological and optical attributes of the QDs, but also to formation of unique self-assembled island-patterns. Oriented dashes, straight and buckled chains of islands, and aligned island-pairs are formed, depending on the thickness of the Te-cap layer. The islands are partially alloyed with Te and emit luminescence at very low energies (down to 1.7 eV at room temperature). The Te cap layer undergoes (poly)crystallization during temperature ramp-up (from room temperature to TD) for desorption. Here, it is shown that the self-assembled patterns of the island-ensembles are determined by the pattern of the grain boundaries of the polycrystalline Te layer. Based on an understanding of the mechanism of pattern formation, a simple and "clean" method for controlled positioning of individual QDs and QD-based extended nanostructures, is proposed in this work. The studies carried out in the framework of this thesis provide not only a deeper insight into the microscopic processes governing the heteroepitaxial self-assembly of CdSe/ZnSe(001) QDs, but also concrete approaches to achieve, optimize, and control several technologically-important features of QD-ensembles. Reduction and control of QD-areal-density, pronounced vertical correlation of distinctly-defined QDs in QD-superlattices, and self-assembly of QD-based extended structures, as demonstrated in this work, might turn out to be beneficial for envisioned applications in information-, and communication-technologies.},
  subject      = {Nanostruktur},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Schallenberg2004,
  author    = {Schallenberg, Timo},
  title     = {Shadow mask assisted heteroepitaxy of compound semiconductor nanostructures},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-10290},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2004},
  abstract  = {Shadow Mask assisted Molecular Beam Epitaxy (SMMBE) is a technique enabling selected area epitaxy of semiconductor heterostructures through shadow masks. The objective of this work was the development of the SMMBE technique for the reliable fabrication of compound semiconductor nanostructures of high structural and optical quality. In order to accomplish this, technological processes have been developed and optimized. This, in combination with model calculations of the basic kinetic growth processes has enabled the fabrication of high quality quantum structures. A high spatial precision and control of the incidence regions of the molecular beams during the SMMBE process are required for the fabrication of nanostructures. One of the technological developments to this effect, which has substantially enhanced the versatility of SMMBE, is the introduction of a new type of freestanding shadow masks: Growth through such a mask with different incidence angles of the molecular beams is equivalent to employing different mechanical masks, but is much more accurate since the precision of mechanical alignment is limited. A consistent model has been developed, which successfully explains the growth dynamics of molecular beam epitaxy through shadow masks. The redistribution of molecular fluxes under shadow masks may affect the growth rates on selected areas of the substrate drastically. In the case of compound semiconductors, reactions between the constituent species play important roles in controlling the growth rates as a function of the growth parameters. The predictions of the model regarding the growth of II-VI and III-V compounds have been tested experimentally and the dependence of the growth rates on the growth parameters has been verified. Moreover, it has been shown, that selected area epitaxy of II-VI and III-V compounds are governed by different surface kinetics. Coexisting secondary fluxes of both constituent species and the apparent non-existence of surface diffusion are characteristic for SMMBE of II-VI compounds. In contrast, III-V SMMBE is governed by the interplay between secondary group-V flux and the surface migration of group-III adatoms. In addition to the basic surface kinetic processes described by the model, the roles of orientation and strain-dependent growth dynamics, partial shadow, and material deposition on the mask (closure of apertures) have been discussed. The resulting advanced understanding of the growth dynamics (model and basic experiments) in combination with the implementation of technical improvements has enabled the development and application of a number of different processes for the fabrication of both II-VI and III-V nanostructures. In addition to specific material properties, various other phenomena have been exploited, e.g., self-organization. It has been shown that, e.g., single quantum dots and quantum wires can be reliably grown. Investigations performed on the SMMBE nanostructures have demonstrated the high positional and dimensional precision of the SMMBE technique. Bright cathodoluminescence demonstrates that the resulting quantum structures are of high structural and optical quality. In addition to these results, which demonstrate SMMBE as a prospective nanofabrication technique, the limitations of the method have also been discussed, and various approaches to overcome them have been suggested. Moreover, propositions for the fabrication of complex quantum devices by the multiple application of a stationary shadow mask have been put forward. In addition to selected area growth, the shadow masks can assist in etching, doping, and in situ contact definition in nanoscale selected areas. Due to the high precision and control over the dimensions and positions of the grown structures, which at the same time are of excellent chemical, crystal, and optical quality, SMMBE provides an interesting perspective for the fabrication of complex quantum devices from II-VI and III-V semiconductors.},
  subject      = {Verbindungshalbleiter},
  language  = {en}
}