@phdthesis{Macher2021,
  author    = {Macher, Sven},
  title     = {On the Effects of Moisture on Polymer-Based Electrochromic Devices},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-24240},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-242407},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {The present work builds on a conjugated electrochromic polymer with a highly transmissive and colorless bright state and its application in electrochromic devices. The main body of this work focuses on the investigation of the influence of moisture on electrochromic devices and solutions to overcome possible degradation of these devices due to moisture ingress. Firstly, a series of EDOT derivatives with a terminal double bond in the lateral sidechain to potentially achieve a highly transmissive and fully colorless bright state was investigated. All of the EDOT derivatives were electrochemically polymerized and characterized by means of (in-situ) spectroelectrochemistry. The results highlight the dramatic influence of the terminal double bond on the improved visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state. After detailed evaluation and comparison, the best performing compound, which contains a hexenyl sidechain (PEDOT-EthC6), was scaled-up by changing the deposition technique from an electrochemical to a chemical in-situ polymerization process on a R2R-pilot line in an industrially relevant environment. The R2R-processed PEDOTEthC6 half-cells were characterized in detail and provide enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state as well as short response times, improved contrast ratio, coloration efficiency and cycling stability (10 000 cycles).[21] In a second step, the novel PEDOT-EthC6 electrochromic polymer was combined with a Prussian Blue counter electrode and a solid polymer electrolyte to form an all-solid-sate ECDs based on complementary switching electrodes and PET-ITO as flexible substrates. The fabricated ECDs were optically and spectroelectrochemically characterized. Excellent functionality of the S2S-processed flexible ECDs was maintained throughout 10 000 switching cycles under laboratory conditions. The ECDs offer enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance change and color neutrality in the bright state as well as contrast ratio, coloration efficiency, cycling stability and fast response times. Furthermore, the final device assembly was transferred from a S2S-process to a continuous R2R-lamination process.[238] In a third step, the PEDOT-EthC6/PB-based ECDs were submitted to conscious environmental aging tests. The emphasis of the research presented in this work, was mainly put at the influence of moisture and possible failure mechanisms regarding the PEDOT-EthC6/PB based ECDs. An intense brown coloration of the electrodes was observed while cycling the ECDs in humid atmospheres (90\% rH) as a major degradation phenomenon. The brown coloration and a thereby accompanied loss of conductivity of the PET-ITO substrates was related to significant degradation of the ITO layers, inserted as the conductive layers in the flexible ECDs. A dissolution of the ITO thin films and formation of metallic indium particles on the surface of the ITO layers was observed that harmed the cycling stability enormously. The conductive layers of the aged ECDs were investigated by XRD, UV-Vis, SEM and spectroelectrochemical measurements and validated the supposed irreversible reduction of the ITO layers.[279] In the absence of reasonable alternatives to PET-ITO for flexible (R2R-processed) ECDs, it is also important to investigate measures to avoid the degradation of ECDs. This is primarily associated with the avoidance of appropriate electrode potentials necessary for ITO reduction in humid atmospheres. As an intrinsic action point, the electrode potentials were investigated via electrochemical measurements in a three-electrode setup of an all-solid-state ECD. Extensive knowledge on the electrode potentials allowed the voltage-induced degradation of the ITO in flexible ECDs to be avoided through the implementation of an unbalanced electrode configuration (charge density ratio of working and counter electrode). It was possible to narrow the overall operational voltage window to an extent in which irreversible ITO reduction no longer occurs. The unbalanced electrode configuration lead to an improved cycling stability without harming other characteristics such as response time and light transmittance change and allows ECD operation in the presence of humidity.[279] The avoidance of the mentioned degradation phenomena is further associated with appropriate sealing methods and materials as well as appropriate electrode and device fabrication processes. Since a variety of sealing materials is commercially available, due to the commercial launch of organic photovoltaic (OPV) and light emitting diodes (OLEDs), the focus in the present work was put to water-free electrode fabrication. As an extrinsic action point, a novel preparation method of a nanoscale PEDOT-EthC6 dispersion based on organic solvents is presented here in a final step. The water-free processing method gives access to straightforward printing and coating processes on flexible PET-ITO substrates and thus represents a promising and simplified alternative to the established PEDOT:PSS. The resulting nano-PEDOT-EthC6 thin films exhibit enhanced color neutrality and transmissivity in the bright state and are comparable to the properties of the in-situ polymerized PEDOT-EthC6 thin films.[280]},
  subject      = {Elektrochromie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Schott2015,
  author    = {Schott, Marco},
  title     = {Neuartige Elektrodenmaterialien auf der Basis von Metallo-Polyelektrolyten und Hybridpolymeren f{\"u}r elektrochrome Fenster},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-116904},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Herstellung von elektrochromen (Nanokomposit-) Materialien auf der Basis des Metall-Komplexes Fe(ph-tpy)2 und eines Metallo-supramolekularen Polyelektrolyten (Fe-MEPE) f{\"u}r den Einsatz in glas- und kunstoffbasierten elektrochromen Elementen (ECDs) mit elektrisch schaltbarer Transmission untersucht. Mittels Layer-by-Layer (LbL)- und Tauchbeschichtungsverfahren ist es m{\"o}glich, homogene Fe-MEPE-Filme auf transparenten, leitf{\"a}higen Oxidsubstraten (TCO) herzustellen. Die eingesetzten TCO-Substrate besitzen eine hohe Transparenz im sichtbaren Bereich und einen geringen Fl{\"a}chenwiderstand, so dass in elektrochromen Elementen (ECDs) hohe Transmissionswerte im Hellzustand und kurze Schaltzeiten erzielt werden k{\"o}nnen. Als Referenzmaterial wurde Fe(ph-tpy)2 untersucht, um die Vorteile von polymeren Strukturen gegen{\"u}ber mononuklearen Metall-Komplexen aufzuzeigen. Die rosa-violetten Fe(ph-tpy)2-Komplexe eignen sich nicht f{\"u}r die Herstellung elektrochromer D{\"u}nnschichten, aufgrund der schlechten Benetzbarkeit und Haftung auf TCO-Substraten. Dagegen besitzen Fe-MEPE hervorragende elektrochrome Eigenschaften. Fe-MEPE ist gut l{\"o}slich in Alkoholen und Etheralkoholen, wobei in MeOH der gr{\"o}ßte Extinktionskoeffizient εmax (46.890 M-1•cm-1) erreicht wird. Ein Vergleich zwischen LbL-assemblierten und tauchbeschichteten Fe-MEPE-Schichten zeigt, dass die elektrochromen Filme mittels Tauchbeschichtung schneller hergestellt werden k{\"o}nnen und geringere Schaltzeiten haben. Die h{\"o}chste optische Qualit{\"a}t wird mit einem L{\"o}sungsmittelgemisch aus EtOH, MeOH und 2-Butoxyethanol erreicht. Die Schichten weisen eine homogene, defektfreie Oberfl{\"a}che mit hoher Transparenz auf. Fe-MEPE-Schichten sind bis etwa 100 °C stabil. Bei weiterer Erh{\"o}hung der Temperatur f{\"a}rben sie sich irreversibel gr{\"u}n f{\"a}rben und lassen sich nicht mehr schalten. Die Gr{\"u}nf{\"a}rbung ist durch eine {\"A}nderung der Molekularstruktur der Fe-MEPE-Polymere bedingt. Ab einer Temperatur von etwa 100 °C findet ein {\"U}bergang von der Niedrigtemperatur- zu einer Hochtemperaturphase statt. Der axiale Fe-N-Abstand verringert sich dabei von 1,95 auf 1,88 {\AA}, der {\"a}quatoriale Fe-N-Abstand vergr{\"o}ßert sich von 1,98 auf 2,01 {\AA}. Elektrochemische Untersuchungen zeigen, dass Fe-MEPE-Schichten bei Spannungen im Bereich von 3,85 bis 4,10 V vs. Li/Li+ in fl{\"u}ssigen organischen Elektrolyten von blau nach farblos schalten durch Oxidation von Fe(II) nach Fe(III) und bei etwa 4,00 bis 3,75 V vs. Li/Li+ f{\"a}rben sich die Fe-MEPE-Schichten reduktiv wieder blau. Es k{\"o}nnen hohe Coulomb-Effizienzen von etwa 94 \%, F{\"a}rbeeffizienzen η > 500 cm2•C-1 bei 592 nm und visuelle Transmissionsunterschiede Δτv von bis zu 58 \% erreicht werden. Jedoch l{\"o}sen sich die Fe-MEPE-Schichten ohne Hybridpolymer (ORMOCER®) als Bindemittel in einigen fl{\"u}ssigen und gelf{\"o}rmigen Elektrolyten nach einigen tausend Schaltzyklen teilweise ab. Um die Haftung und die thermische Stabilit{\"a}t der elektrochromen Schichten zu verbessern, werden Fe(ph-tpy)2 und Fe-MEPE in ein ORMOCER® eingebettet. Hierf{\"u}r ist ein hydroxy-funktionalisiertes ORMOCER® mit einem hohen OH/Si-Verh{\"a}ltnis (1,75 : 1) am besten geeignet. Im Gegensatz zu den rosa-violetten ORMOCER®/Fe(ph-tpy)2-Schichten weisen die blau gef{\"a}rbten ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Schichten eine bessere Filmbildung sowie eine h{\"o}here Homogenit{\"a}t und Transparenz auf. Mit einem L{\"o}sungsmittelgemisch aus EtOH, MeOH und 2-Butoxyethanol k{\"o}nnen mittels Tauchbeschichtung homogene ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Filme mit geringem Haze (< 0,5 \%) bis zu einer Probengr{\"o}ße von 20 x 30 cm2 hergestellt werden. Die elektrochromen Eigenschaften bleiben bis zu einem ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Verh{\"a}ltnis von 40:1 und Schichtdicken von etwa 10 µm erhalten, wobei die Schaltgeschwindigkeit mit zunehmendem ORMOCER®-Anteil abnimmt. Als optimal erweist sich ein ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Verh{\"a}ltnis von 3:1, bei dem die Schichten hervorragende optische und elektrochrome Eigenschaften sowie eine gute thermische und mechanische Best{\"a}ndigkeit besitzen. Die thermische Stabilit{\"a}t der ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Filme kann so auf {\"u}ber 100 °C erh{\"o}ht werden; die blaue Farbe und die elektrochromen Eigenschaften der Schichten bleibt auch nach kurzzeitigem Tempern bei 200 °C erhalten. Im Vergleich zu Fe-MEPE-Schichten ohne ORMOCER® ist die Intensit{\"a}t der Metal-to-Ligand Charge Transfer (MLCT)-Bande bei etwa 593 nm und die Ladungsdichte der ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Schichten bei gleicher Schichtdicke geringer, was zur Folge hat, dass auch die F{\"a}rbeeffizienz η der Kompositmaterialien geringer ist. Allerdings konnte der visuelle Transmissionsunterschied Δτv auf 62 \% gesteigert werden und die ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Schichten besitzen dar{\"u}berhinaus eine hohe Zyklenstabilit{\"a}t {\"u}ber mehrere tausend Schaltzyklen ohne signifikanten Ladungsverlust. Weiterhin weist in ORMOCER® eingebettetes Fe-MEPE polyelektrochrome Eigenschaften auf; bei negativen Spannungen (< -1,9 V vs. Fc/Fc+) f{\"a}rben sich die ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE-Schichten gr{\"u}n und weisen eine starke Absorption im NIR-Bereich auf. Im Hinblick auf eine Verwendung von Fe-MEPE bzw. ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE als Arbeitselektrode (WE) in ECDs sind verschiedene Materialien, wie z. B. ITO, V2O5, TiVOx und Preußisch Blau (PB), f{\"u}r den Einsatz als Gegenelektrode (CE) denkbar. Vor allem PB ist als Material f{\"u}r die CE interessant, da es komplement{\"a}r zu Fe-MEPE von blau nach farblos schaltet. Dadurch kann in einem ECD mit einer Fe-MEPE-basierten WE der visuelle Transmissionsunterschied ∆τv im Vergleich zu ECDs mit einer V2O5- oder TiVOx-Gegenelektrode, die keinen farblosen Redoxzustand besitzen, erh{\"o}ht werden. Demnach stellen Fe-MEPE bzw. ORMOCER®/Fe-MEPE vielversprechende elektrochrome Materialien f{\"u}r den Einsatz in schaltbaren Fenstern (Smart Windows) dar, vor allem wegen hervorragender Beschichtungseigenschaften, hoher F{\"a}rbeeffizienz und kurzen Schaltzeiten.},
  subject      = {Supramolekulare Chemie},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Niklaus2022,
  author    = {Niklaus, Lukas},
  title     = {Electrochromic systems based on metallopolymers and metal oxides: towards neutral tint and near-infrared transmission modulation},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-25855},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-258554},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {While the field of electrochromic (EC) materials and devices (ECDs) continues to advance in terms of color palette and understanding the underlying mechanism, several scientific and technological challenges need to be addressed by optimizing the materials and understanding the electrochemical interplay of these materials in full cells. The main issue here is to further improve the EC profile for color neutrality and cycling stability in order to commercialize dimmable EC products. The transparent conductive substrates used in this work (FTO and ultra-thin ITO glass) have high visible light transmittance (τv > 85\%) and low sheet resistance (< 25 Ω·sq-1). In addition, the Li+-containing gel electrolyte has sufficient ionic conductivity (2.8·10-4 S·cm-1 at 25 °C), so the investigated ECDs could achieve a fast response (required ionic conductivity is between 10-3 and 10-7 S·cm-1). This work shows that the combination of cathodically-coloring Fe-MEPE with anodically-coloring non-stoichiometric nickel oxide (Ni1-xO) electrodes (prepared by the National Institute of Chemistry in Ljubljana, Slovenia) can be used in neutral-coloring type III ECDs. The Fe-MEPE/Ni1-xO ECD with the underbalanced CE (ECD1-1, 2: 1) and the balanced configuration (ECD1-2, 1: 1) are both nearly neutrally-colored (ECD1-1: a* = -6.7, b* = 8.8; ECD1-2: a* = -9.0, b* = 10.1) in the bright state with a τv of almost 70\%. Due to the overbalancing of the CE (ECD1-3, 1:3), a deviation (a* = -2.8, b* = 19.9) from the neutral coloration occurred here. The balanced as well as the overbalanced ECD configurations show high electrochemical cycling stability (over 1,000 potentiostatic switching cycles). In general, the overbalanced configuration offers the advantage of a smaller operating voltage range (-1 V ↔ 2.5 V to -1 V ↔ 1.5 V), i.e., avoiding possible electrochemical degradation of the EC materials, electrolyte, or conductive layers. By using a Li RE in the full cell, insights into the optimal matching of electrochemical and optical properties between the two electrodes are obtained to achieve more stable ECDs. Thereby, the redox potentials of both EC electrodes (Fe-MEPE and Ni1-xO) can be measured during operation. The incomplete decolorization of ECD1-1 can be explained by the measured electrode potentials (below the required 4 V vs. Li/Li+), excluding side reactions and degradation at both electrodes. The results demonstrate the importance of using balanced and (slightly) overbalanced ECD configurations with complementary-coloring EC electrodes to achieve high cycling stability and fast switching at low operating voltages. Therefore, this three-electrode configuration provides an excellent method for in situ electrochemical characterization of the individual EC electrodes to better understand the redox processes during device operation and to further improve the optical contrast and cycle stability of ECDs. The Fe-MEPE/Ni1-xO combination was tested on flexible ultrathin ITO glass (ECD1-4). Here, by applying a low voltage of -1 V ↔ 2.5 V, the MEPE/Ni1-xO ECDs can be reversibly switched from a colored (L* = 35.6, a* = 19.4, b* = -26.7) to a nearly colorless (L* = 78.5, a* = -14.0, b* = 21.3) state. This is accompanied by a change in τv from 6\% to 53\%. The ECDs exhibit fast response and good cycling stability (5\% loss of optical contrast over 100 switching cycles). To further improve color neutrality and cycling stability, ECDs combining Fe-MEPE and mixed metal oxides as ion storage layers were investigated. Titanium manganese oxide (TMO, Fraunhofer IST) and titanium vanadium oxide (TiVOx, EControl-Glas GmbH \& Co. KG) electrodes are compared for use as optically-passive ion storage layers. TiVOx with a maximum charge density of approx. 27 mC·cm-2 and a coloration efficiency of η = 2 cm·C-1 at 584 nm shows a color change from yellow to light gray at 2 V vs. Ag/AgCl, while the slightly anodically-coloring Ti-rich TMO (10.5 mC·cm-², η584 nm = -4 cm·C-1) switches from light yellow to colorless at -2.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl. These materials show only a slight change in τv value from 85\% to 75\% and from 72\% to 81\%, respectively, thus reaching the requirements for highly transmissive optical-passive ion storage layers. The ECDs with Fe-MEPE in combination with TiVOx (ECD2-1) and TMO-1 (ECD2-2) are blue-purple in the dark state (0 V) and turn colorless by applying a voltage of 1.5 V, changing the τv value from 28\% to 69\% and from 21\% to 57\% in 3 s and 13 s, respectively. The ECDs show fast responses and high cyclability over more than 100 cycles. In the last section, the simplification of cell architecture by using redox mediators shows that different redox mediators (KHCF(III), Fc-PF6, Fc-BF4, and TMTU) can be used in type II ECDs (4 instead of 5 layers) consisting of Fe-MEPE or Ni1-xO thin film electrodes. The combination of KHCF(III) with Fe-MEPE has a low cycling stability due to the electrochemical formation of Prussian blue (PB). This side reaction is undesirable as it decreases the optical contrast. It can be avoided by using Fc+- (ECD3-5/6) or TMTU-based (ECD3-7) redox mediators, which exhibit reversible redox behavior. A high τv value of 72\% is obtained for the use of TMTU. Low concentrations (<0.1 M) of redox mediators decrease the cell voltage for complete switching without affecting the optical properties of the ECDs. The redox couple TMTU/TMFDS2+ (molar ratio of 1:0.1 in 1 M LiClO4/PC as electrolyte) works well in combination with Ni1-xO electrodes (ECD3-10), with a change in τv value from 38\% (colored at 2 V, L* = 67.1, a* = 3.9, b* = 17.2) to 70\% at (decolored at -2 V, L* = 86.6, a* = -0.6, b* = 17.2). This result implies that incorporating redox mediators into the electrolyte is an effective means to simplify the cell assembly and color neutrality can be obtained with one optically active WE and a color-neutral redox mediator. Moreover, the combination of Ni1-xO and the colorless TMTU/TMFDS2+ redox mediator is a potential candidate to obtain neutrally colored ECDs. It is shown that the lab-sized FTO- and ultra-thin ITO-glass-based ECDs are very attractive for energy-efficient EC applications, e.g., in architectural or automotive glazing, aircraft, ships, home appliances and displays. To monitor the EC performance and to prevent diverging electrode potentials during the switching process, the studied three-electrode configuration can help to extend the cycle stability as well as to improve the charge balancing of dimmable applications. The studied ECDs display a route towards neutral tint, e.g., EC active Ni1-xO, optically-inactive mixed metal oxides, and colorless redox mediators. Nevertheless, color neutrality should be further improved to meet the requirements for industrial applications. For future work, a scale-up process from lab-sized (few cm²) to prototype (few m²) ECDs will be necessary.},
  subject      = {Elektrochromie},
  language  = {en}
}