@phdthesis{Beck2019,
  author    = {Beck, Sebastian},
  title     = {Using optogenetics to influence the circadian clock of \(Drosophila\) \(melanogaster\)},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-18495},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-184952},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Almost all life forms on earth have adapted to the most impactful and most predictable recurring change in environmental condition, the cycle of day and night, caused by the axial rotation of the planet. As a result many animals have evolved intricate endogenous clocks, which adapt and synchronize the organisms' physiology, metabolism and behaviour to the daily change in environmental conditions. The scientific field researching these endogenous clocks is called chronobiology and has steadily grown in size, scope and relevance since the works of the earliest pioneers in the 1960s. The number one model organism for the research of circadian clocks is the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, whose clock serves as the entry point to understanding the basic inner workings of such an intricately constructed endogenous timekeeping system. In this thesis it was attempted to combine the research on the circadian clock with the techniques of optogenetics, a fairly new scientific field, launched by the discovery of Channelrhodopsin 2 just over 15 years ago. Channelrhodopsin 2 is a light-gated ion channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In optogenetics, researches use these light-gated ion channels like Channelrhodopsin 2 by heterologously expressing them in cells and tissues of other organisms, which can then be stimulated by the application of light. This is most useful when studying neurons, as these channels provide an almost non-invasive tool to depolarize the neuronal plasma membranes at will. The goal of this thesis was to develop an optogenetic tool, which would be able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster upon illumination. A phase shift is the adaptive response of the circadian clock to an outside stimulus that signals a change in the environmental light cycle. An optogenetic tool, able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock predictably and reliably, would open up many new ways and methods of researching the neuronal network of the clock and which neurons communicate to what extent, ultimately synchronizing the network. The first optogenetic tool to be tested in the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster was ChR2-XXL, a channelrhodopsin variant with dramatically increased expression levels and photocurrents combined with a prolonged open state. The specific expression of ChR2-XXL and of later constructs was facilitated by deploying the three different clock-specific GAL4-driver lines, clk856-gal4, pdf-gal4 and mai179-gal4. Although ChR2-XXL was shown to be highly effective at depolarizing neurons, these stimulations proved to be unable to significantly phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila. The second series of experiments was conducted with the conceptually novel optogenetic tools Olf-bPAC and SthK-bPAC, which respectively combine a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel (Olf and SthK) with the light-activated adenylyl-cyclase bPAC. These tools proved to be quite useful when expressed in the motor neurons of instar-3 larvae of Drosophila, paralyzing the larvae upon illumination, as well as affecting body length. This way, these new tools could be precisely characterized, spawning a successfully published research paper, centered around their electrophysiological characterization and their applicability in model organisms like Drosophila. In the circadian clock however, these tools caused substantial damage, producing severe arrhythmicity and anomalies in neuronal development. Using a temperature-sensitive GAL80-line to delay the expression until after the flies had eclosed, yielded no positive results either. The last series of experiments saw the use of another new series of optogenetic tools, modelled after the Olf-bPAC, with bPAC swapped out for CyclOp, a membrane-bound guanylyl-cyclase, coupled with less potent versions of the Olf. This final attempt however also ended up being unsuccessful. While these tools could efficiently depolarize neuronal membranes upon illumination, they were ultimately unable to stimulate the circadian clock in way that would cause it to phase shift. Taken together, these mostly negative results indicate that an optogenetic manipulation of the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster is an extremely challenging subject. As light already constitutes the most impactful environmental factor on the circadian clock, the combination of chronobiology with optogenetics demands the parameters of the conducted experiments to be tuned with an extremely high degree of precision, if one hopes to receive positive results from these types of experiments at all.},
  subject      = {Chronobiologie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Grotemeyer2019,
  author    = {Grotemeyer, Alexander},
  title     = {Characterisation and application of new optogenetic tools in \(Drosophila\) \(melanogaster\)},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-17879},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-178793},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Since Channelrhodopsins has been described first and introduced successfully in freely moving animals (Nagel et al., 2003 and 2005), tremendous impact has been made in this interesting field of neuroscience. Subsequently, many different optogenetic tools have been described and used to address long-lasting scientific issues. Furthermore, beside the 'classical' Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), basically a cation-selective ion channel, also altered ChR2 descendants, anion selective channels and light-sensitive metabotropic proteins have expanded the optogenetic toolbox. However, in spite of this variety of different tools most researches still pick Channelrhodopsin-2 for their optogenetic approaches due to its well-known kinetics. In this thesis, an improved Channelrhodopsin, Channelrhodopsin2-XXM (ChR2XXM), is described, which might become an useful tool to provide ambitious neuroscientific approaches by dint of its characteristics. Here, ChR2XXM was chosen to investigate the functional consequences of Drosophila larvae lacking latrophilin in their chordotonal organs. Finally, the functionality of GtACR, was checked at the Drosophila NMJ. For a in-depth characterisation, electrophysiology along with behavioural setups was employed. In detail, ChR2XXM was found to have a better cellular expression pattern, high spatiotemporal precision, substantial increased light sensitivity and improved affinity to its chromophore retinal, as compared to ChR2. Employing ChR2XXM, effects of latrophilin (dCIRL) on signal transmission in the chordotonal organ could be clarified with a minimum of side effects, e.g. possible heat response of the chordotonal organ, due to high light sensitivity. Moreover, optogenetic activation of the chordotonal organ, in vivo, led to behavioural changes. Additionally, GtACR1 was found to be effective to inhibit motoneuronal excitation but is accompanied by unexpected side effects. These results demonstrate that further improvement and research of optogenetic tools is highly valuable and required to enable researchers to choose the best fitting optogenetic tool to address their scientific questions.},
  subject      = {Optogenetik},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Gueta2012,
  author    = {Gueta, Ronnie},
  title     = {Untersuchungen zur Struktur und Funktion von Channelrhodopsinen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-85693},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {Die zur Gruppe der mikrobiellen Rhodopsine geh{\"o}renden lichtaktivierbaren Ionenkan{\"a}le Channelrhodopsin 1 (ChR1) und Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2) aus dem Augenfleck von C. rheinhardtii sind Bestandteile des visuellen Systems und an der Phototaxis beteiligt. Sie bestehen aus einem zytosolisch gelegenen C Terminus, dessen Funktion noch ungekl{\"a}rt ist und einem, f{\"u}r die Kanalaktivit{\"a}t verantwortlichen, N terminalen Bereich aus sieben Transmembranhelices. Der lichtsensitive Kofaktor all trans Retinal ist kovalent an einen Lysinrest (K257) der siebten Transmembranhelix gebunden. Bei einer Belichtung mit Blaulicht isomerisiert das Chromophor zur 13 cis Form, was eine Konformations{\"a}nderung und das {\"O}ffnen des Kanals zur Folge hat. Im Zuge dessen str{\"o}men ein und zweiwertige Kationen in die Zelle und eine Depolarisation findet statt. Um einen tieferen Einblick in Struktur und funktionelle Mechanismen zu bekommen, wurden Wildtyp und Mutanten von Ch1 und ChR2 heterolog in Oozyten von X. laevis exprimiert. In Bakteriorhodopsin bilden die Seitenketten von T90 und D115 eine f{\"u}r Stabilit{\"a}t und Funktion wichtige Wasserstoffbr{\"u}cke aus. Durch elektrophysiologische, fluoreszenzmikroskopische und biochemische Verfahren wurden Mutanten der entsprechenden Reste in ChR2 (C128, D156) untersucht. Diese zeigten eine deutlich verlangsamte Kinetik und eine 10 bis 100fache Erh{\"o}hung der Lichtempfindlichkeit. Die identischen Auswirkungen von Mutationen beider Reste deuten auf eine Bindung mit funktioneller Bedeutung zwischen C128 und D156 hin. Im Falle von ChR2 C128T, C128A und D156A konnte der Kanal nach Anregung mit Blaulicht, durch gr{\"u}nes und violettes Licht vorzeitig geschlossen werden. Diese Lichtqualit{\"a}ten entsprechen den Absorptionswellenl{\"a}ngen zweier Intermediate des Photozyklus von ChR2 (P390 und P520). Durch Ver{\"a}nderung des externen pH-Wertes konnten Hinweise auf eine protonenabh{\"a}ngige Gleichgewichtsreaktion dieser Intermediate gefunden werden. Auch in dem f{\"u}r Protonen h{\"o}her leitf{\"a}higen ChR1 konnten Hinweise auf eine Interaktion zwischen den Resten C167 und D195 gefunden werden. Elektrische Messungen von Mutanten zeigten eine deutliche Erh{\"o}hung des Photostroms bei verh{\"a}ltnism{\"a}ßig geringem Anstieg der Schließzeit. Der Einfluss dieser Mutationen auf die Kinetik war somit weniger ausgepr{\"a}gt als bei ChR2. Einen besonderen Stellenwert unter allen Channelrhodopsin Mutanten nehmen ChR2 D156C und ChR1 D195C ein. Mit einem Photostrom von 5 µA bei ChR1 D195C und bis zu 50 µA bei ChR2 D156C konnten f{\"u}r diese die h{\"o}chsten Photostr{\"o}me aller bisher charakterisierten ChR1 bzw. ChR2 Varianten nachgewiesen werden. Durch fluoreszenzmikroskopische Quantifizierung konnte f{\"u}r alle im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstellten ChR1 und ChR2 Mutanten eine erh{\"o}hte Proteinmenge sowohl in Anwesenheit als auch Abwesenheit zus{\"a}tzlichen all trans Retinals w{\"a}hrend der Inkubation nachgewiesen werden. Die Fluoreszenzintensit{\"a}ten korrelierten hierbei mit der H{\"o}he der Stromamplituden und erreichten ein Maximum bei ChR2 D156C. Biochemische Experimente mit der Gesamtmembranfraktion von ChR2 exprimierenden Oozyten lieferten Hinweise auf eine dimere Quart{\"a}rstruktur von Channelrhodopsinen, was durch die Kristallstruktur einer Chim{\"a}re aus ChR1 und ChR2 von (Kato et al., 2012) best{\"a}tigt wurde. Unter der Annahme, dass die Poren in den Proteomeren gebildet werden, konnte eine gegenseitige Beeinflussung der Regionen in heterodimeren Kan{\"a}len aus ChR2 Wildtyp und Mutanten aufgrund kinetischer Unterschiede bei kurzer und langer Belichtung oder der Verwendung von unterschiedlichen Lichtintensit{\"a}ten nachgewiesen werden. Eine Voraussetzung f{\"u}r diesen Effekt ist eine synchrone Anregung beider Untereinheiten. Die Interaktion von Channelrhodopsin Untereinheiten konnte in vivo mithilfe der bimolekularen Fluoreszenzkomplementation nachgewiesen werden. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Wechselwirkung nicht nur auf identische Untereinheiten in Homodimeren beschr{\"a}nkt ist, sondern auch bei Heterodimeren aus verschiedenen ChR2 Untereinheiten und sogar zwischen ChR2 und ChR1 m{\"o}glich ist.},
  subject      = {Ionenkanal},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Nuwal2010,
  author    = {Nuwal, Nidhi},
  title     = {Optogenetic investigation of nervous system functions using walking behavior and genome wide transcript analysis of Synapsin and Sap47 mutants of Drosophila},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-51694},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {PART I Animals need to constantly evaluate their external environment in order to survive. In some cases the internal state of the animal changes to cope with it's surrounding. In our study we wanted to investigate the role of amines in modulating internal states of Drosophila. We have designed a behavioral paradigm where the flies are fixed in space but can walk on a small styrofoam ball suspended by a gentle stream of air. The walking activity of flies was used as behavioral readout. PART I Animals need to constantly evaluate their external environment in order to survive. In some cases the internal state of the animal changes to cope with it's surrounding. In our study we wanted to investigate the role of amines in modulating internal states of Drosophila. We have designed a behavioral paradigm where the flies are fixed in space but can walk on a small styrofoam ball suspended by a gentle stream of air. The walking activity of flies was used as behavioral readout. An operant training paradigm was established by coupling one of the walking directions to incidence of heat punishment. We observed that animals quickly realized the contingency of punishment with walking direction and avoided walking in the punished direction in the presence of punishment, but did not continue walking in the unpunished direction in the absence of the punishment. This would indicate that the flies do not form a memory for the punished direction or rapidly erase it under new conditions. On having established the paradigm with heat punishment we have attempted to activate selected subsets of neuronal populations of Drosophila while they were walking on the ball. The selective activation of neurons was achieved by expressing the light-activated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) using the Gal4-UAS system and coupling the unidirectional walking of the animals on the ball with the incidence of blue light required to activate the channels and depolarize the neurons. The feasibility of this approach was tested by light-activating sugar sensitive gustatory receptor neurons expressing ChR2, we found that when the light was actuated the flies preferred to turn in one direction the optically "rewarded" direction. Next we similarly activated different subsets of aminergic neurons. We observed that in our setup animals avoided to turn in the direction which was coupled to activation of dopaminergic neurons indicating that release of dopamine is disliked by the animals. This is in accordance with associative learning experiments where dopamine is believed to underlie the formation of an association between a neutral conditioned stimulus with the aversive unconditioned stimulus. However, when we activated tyraminergic/octopaminergic neurons we did not observe any directional preference. The activation of dopaminergic and tyraminergic/octopaminergic neurons led to arousal of the animals indicating that we were indeed successful in activating those neurons. Also, the activation of serotonergic neurons did not have any effect on directional preference of the animals. With this newly established paradigm it will be interesting to find out if in insects like in mammals a reward mediating system exists and to test subsets of aminergic or peptidergic neurons that could possibly be involved in a reward signaling system which has not been detected in our study. Also, it would be interesting to localize neuropile regions that would be involved in mediating choice behavior in our paradigm. PART II In collaboration with S. Kneitz (IZKF Wuerzburg) and T. Nuwal we performed genome-wide expression analysis of two pre-synaptic mutants - Synapsin (Syn97) and Synapse associated protein of 47 kDa (Sap47156). The rationale behind these experiments was to identify genes that were up- or down-regulated due to these mutations. The microarray experiments provided us with several candidate genes some of which we have verified by qPCR. From our qPCR analysis we can conclude that out of the verified genes only Cirl transcripts seem to be reproducibly down regulated in Synapsin mutants. The Cirl gene codes for a calcium independent receptor for latrotoxin. Further qPCR experiments need to be performed to verify other candidate genes. The molecular interactions between CIRL and SYN or their genes should now be investigated in detail.},
  subject      = {Taufliege},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Voeller2009,
  author    = {V{\"o}ller, Thomas},
  title     = {Visualisierung und Manipulation neuronaler Aktivit{\"a}ten im Gehirn von Drosophila melanogaster},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-35589},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Techniken zur Analyse der Funktion diverser Neuronen in Drosophila melanogaster angewendet. Im ersten Teil wurde mittels in-vivo Calcium Imaging Technik unter Verwendung des Calciumsensors Cameleon neuronale Aktivit{\"a}t entlang des olfaktorischen Signalweges registriert. Hierbei wurde die neuronale Repr{\"a}sentation der Duftidentit{\"a}t und der Duftintensit{\"a}t untersucht. In Bezug auf diese Fragestellung wurde die Datenverarbeitung und Datenanalyse weiterentwickelt und standardisiert. Die Experimente f{\"u}hrten zu dem Ergebnis, dass duftspezifische Aktivit{\"a}tsmuster auf der Ebene des Antennallobus sehr gut unterscheidbar sind. Manche Aktivit{\"a}tsmuster der pr{\"a}sentierten D{\"u}fte zeigten interessanterweise einen hohen {\"A}hnlichkeitsgrad, wohingegen andere un{\"a}hnlich waren. In h{\"o}heren Gehirnzentren wie den Orten der terminalen Aborisationen der Projektionsneurone oder den Pilzk{\"o}rper Kenyonzellen liegt eine starke Variabilit{\"a}t der duftevozierten Aktivit{\"a}tsmuster vor, was generelle Interpretationen unm{\"o}glich macht und h{\"o}chstens Vergleiche innerhalb eines Individuums zul{\"a}sst. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Calciumsignale in den Rezeptorneuronen sowie pr{\"a}- und postsynaptisch in den Projektionsneuronen bei Erh{\"o}hung der Konzentration der verschiedenen pr{\"a}sentierten D{\"u}fte {\"u}ber einen Bereich von mindestens drei Gr{\"o}ßenordnungen ansteigen. In den Kenyonzellen des Pilzk{\"o}rper-Calyx und der Pilzk{\"o}rper-Loben ist diese Konzentrationsabh{\"a}ngigkeit weniger deutlich ausgepr{\"a}gt und im Falle der Loben nur f{\"u}r bestimmte D{\"u}fte detektierbar. Eine Best{\"a}tigung des postulierten „sparsed code" der Duftpr{\"a}sentation in den Pilzk{\"o}rpern konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht erbracht werden, was m{\"o}glicherweise daran liegt, dass eine Einzelzellaufl{\"o}sung mit der verwendeten Technik nicht erreicht werden kann. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit sollte durch die Nutzung des lichtabh{\"a}ngigen Kationenkanals Channelrhodopsin-2 der Frage nachgegangen werden, ob bestimmte modulatorische Neurone die verst{\"a}rkenden Eigenschaften eines bestrafenden oder belohnenden Stimulus vermitteln. Die lichtinduzierte Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 exprimierenden dopaminergen Neuronen als Ersatz f{\"u}r einen aversiven Reiz f{\"u}hrte bei einer olfaktorischen Konditionierung bei Larven zur Bildung eines aversiven assoziativen Ged{\"a}chtnisses. Im Gegensatz dazu induzierte die Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 in oktopaminergen/tyraminergen Neuronen als Ersatz f{\"u}r einen appetitiven Reiz ein appetitives assoziatives Ged{\"a}chtnis. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass dopaminerge Neurone bei Larven aversives Duftlernen, oktopaminerge/tyraminerge Neurone dagegen appetitives Duftlernen induzieren.},
  subject      = {Taufliege},
  language  = {de}
}