@phdthesis{Simon2012,
  author    = {Simon, Nina Monica},
  title     = {Molecular interactions of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum during the sexual reproduction in the mosquito midgut},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-72403},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {The sexual phase of Plasmodium falciparum begins with the differentiation of intraerythrocytic sexual stages, termed gametocytes, in the human host. Mature gametocytes circulate in the peripheral blood and are taken up by the mosquito during the blood meal. These stages are essential for the spread of the malaria disease and form gametes in the mosquito midgut within minutes. A highly conserved family of six secreted proteins has been identified in Plasmodium falciparum. They comprise multiple adhesive domains and are termed PfCCp1 through PfCCp5, and PfFNPA. It was revealed in this work that PfCCp multi-domain adhesion proteins form protein complexes in gametocytes and on the surface of newly emerged macrogametes by adhesion domain-mediated binding. Co-Immunoprecipitation assays with activated gametocyte lysates show interactions between PfCCp proteins and indicate surface association via Pfs230 and Pfs25. Pfs230 is connected with the plasma membrane of the parasite by its interaction partner Pfs48/45. This protein is linked to the plasma membrane by a GPI anchor and presumably retains the multi-protein complex on the surface of newly emerged macrogametes in the mosquito midgut. A WD40 domain containing protein was identified to be part of this protein complex. It might serve as platform for the assembly of the multi protein complex or mediate the interplay among proteins, as suggested from known functions of the WD40 domain repeats. During egress from the host erythrocyte, the emerging gametes become vulnerable to factors of the human complement, which is taken up with the blood meal. In this thesis it was found that the complement system is active for about one hour post feeding. Macrogametes defend against complement-mediated lysis by co-opting the human complement regulators Factor H and FHL-1 from the blood-meal. These serum proteins bind via its SCR domains 5-7 to the surface of macrogametes. Once bound, they trigger complement inactivation of the alternative pathway, which prevents induction of complement lysis on the surface of the malaria parasite. Antibodies against Factor H are able to impair the sexual development in vitro and are able to block transmission to the mosquito. Interaction studies on endogenous proteins and immobilized recombinant proteins revealed the PfGAP50 protein as binding partner of Factor H and FHL-1. This protein was hitherto described as a glideosome-associated protein in invasive parasite stages, but has not yet been characterized in gametes. First localization studies indicate a relocation of PfGAP50 from the inner membrane complex to the surface of macrogametes. Malaria still persists as one of the deadliest infectious diseases worldwide. Investigations on the essential transmissive stages, gametocytes and gametes of Plasmodium falciparum, stood in the background of research for a long time. This work deciphered details on protein interactions on the surface of the malaria parasite and provides first information about coactions between the parasite and the human complement in the mosquito midgut.},
  subject      = {Plasmodium falciparum},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Rupp2009,
  author    = {Rupp, Ingrid},
  title     = {Die Gametogenese des humanpathogenen Malariaerregers Plasmodium falciparum - eine Charakterisierung von daran beteiligten Proteasen sowie die Beschreibung und Funktionsanalyse von dabei auftretenden interzellul{\"a}ren Gametenfilamenten},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-47830},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2009},
  abstract  = {Malaria stellt mit einer Mortalit{\"a}t von {\"u}ber einer Million Menschen pro Jahr die bedeutsamste Tropenkrankheit f{\"u}r den Menschen dar. Wachsende Resistenzen der Malariaerreger gegen{\"u}ber den verf{\"u}gbaren Medikamenten erh{\"o}hen mehr denn je den Druck, neue Therapiem{\"o}glichkeiten sowie einen Impfstoff gegen diese Krankheit zu entwickeln. Eine Unterbrechung des sexuellen Fortpflanzungszyklus im Laufe der Transmission von Mensch zu Stechm{\"u}cke w{\"u}rde zu einem Verbreitungsstopp des Erregers f{\"u}hren. Sowohl die Identifizierung von molekularen Wechselwirkungen als auch die Erforschung von an Fertilisationsereignissen beteiligten Prozessen sind wichtige Schritte, um die Sexualphase des Erregers aufzukl{\"a}ren und neue Angriffspunkte f{\"u}r Medikamente oder Vakzine zu entwickeln. Dem Genom von P. falciparum konnten 92 putative Proteasen zugeordnet werden, von denen nur ein geringer Bruchteil charakterisiert worden ist. Unter Anwendung von Protease-Inhibitoren konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die Exflagellation der m{\"a}nnlichen Gameten die Beteiligung von Proteasen verschiedener Kategorien ben{\"o}tigt. Die Ergebnisse belegten, dass die Aktivit{\"a}t von zwei oder mehr Serinproteasen, von Falcipain-{\"a}hnlichen Cysteinproteasen, von nicht-Thermolysin-{\"a}hnlichen Zink-Metalloproteasen und von Aspartatproteasen f{\"u}r den erfolgreichen Abschluss der m{\"a}nnlichen Gametogenese eine wichtige Voraussetzung ist. Die Lokalisation des Cysteinproteasen- und Falcipain-hemmenden Inhibitors bADA konnte erstmals im Zytosol von Sexualstadien nachgewiesen werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden zus{\"a}tzlich die Proteasen Calpain, DPAP2, GPI8, Metacaspase 2, Plasmepsin 6 und PfSub3 n{\"a}her untersucht. RT-PCR-Analysen konnten die Transkription der sechs ausgesuchten Proteasen in gemischten asexuellen Parasiten sowie zum Großteil in Gametozyten, Gameten und Zygoten belegen. Die Transformation von asexuellen Parasiten mit entsprechenden knockout-Konstrukten deckte f{\"u}r Metacaspase 2 und PfSub3 auf, dass sie im asexuellen Vermehrungszyklus nicht essentiell und die entsprechenden Genloci f{\"u}r Rekombinationsereignisse zug{\"a}nglich sind. Die Ergebnisse der {\"u}brigen Transformationen deuteten darauf hin, dass Calpain essentiell im asexuellen Vermehrungszyklus und dass der Genlocus von Plasmepsin 6 f{\"u}r Rekombinationsereignisse unzug{\"a}nglich ist. Proteinexpressionsstudien anhand von Western-Blot-Analysen und Immunfluoreszenzstudien f{\"u}r PfSub3 konnten Hinweise darauf liefern, dass diese Serinprotease in asexuellen Parasiten, nicht-aktivierten sowie aktivierten Sexualstadien exprimiert wird. Aufgrund der in dieser Arbeit generierten Ergebnisse konnten im Laufe der Gametogenese auftretende Gametenfilamente morphologisch beschrieben sowie Hinweise auf ihre m{\"o}gliche Funktion erlangt werden. Durch die Anwendung von Immunfluoreszenzstudien, rasterelektronenmikroskopischen Aufnahmen sowie die Analyse lebender Gameten konnte gezeigt werden, dass die bis zu 180 µm langen Filamente am Ende geschlossen sind und einen Durchmesser von ca. 200 nm aufweisen. Die tubul{\"a}ren Zellausl{\"a}ufer konnten weiterhin als verzweigte sowie nicht-verzweigte Ausl{\"a}ufer der parasit{\"a}ren Plasmamembran dargestellt werden, die mit Zytoplasma gef{\"u}llt sind. Es konnte belegt werden, dass die Aktin-assoziierten Filamente in periodischen Abst{\"a}nden von beulenartigen Ausw{\"o}lbungen unterbrochen werden und dass sie in rasterelektronenmikroskopischen Analysen ein perlschnurartiges Erscheinungsbild aufweisen. Weiterhin wurde dokumentiert, dass die Zellausl{\"a}ufer mit typischen sexualstadienspezifischen Proteinen wie Pfs25, Pfs230, Pfs48/45 und PfCCp4 assoziiert vorliegen, wobei das Fehlen einzelner dieser Proteine jedoch nicht das Ausbilden der Gametenfilamente verhinderte. Als typisches Charakteristikum der Filamente konnte ihre Eigenschaft beschrieben werden, mehrere Makrogameten und zum Teil Gametozyten in einem Zellkluster miteinander netzartig zu verbinden, wobei bis zu neun Filamente von einem Makrogameten ausgehend beobachtet werden konnten. Die Gametenfilamente zeigten ebenfalls die F{\"a}higkeit, an umliegende nicht-infizierte Erythrozyten sowie mit asexuellen Parasiten infizierte Erythrozyten zu adh{\"a}rieren. Die Filamente waren bereits f{\"u}nf Minuten nach der Aktivierung der Gametozyten und im Laufe der Gametogenese bei 33 bis 73 \% der Zellen nachweisbar. Die Gametenfilamente blieben bis zu 12 Stunden nach Aktivierung der Gametozyten mit der Zelloberfl{\"a}che verbunden. Der aktive Einzug eines Zellfilaments sowie die Bildung der Gametenfilamente im Mitteldarm der Stechm{\"u}cke konnte ebenfalls demonstriert werden. Die in dieser Arbeit dargestellten Ergebnisse lieferten unter anderem den Grundbaustein einer formulierten Funktionshypothese f{\"u}r diese Gametenfilamente. Es wird angenommen, dass die Filamente aufgrund ihrer adh{\"a}siven Eigenschaften im Laufe der Befruchtung von Plasmodium im Mitteldarm der Stechm{\"u}cke auftreten. M{\"o}glicherweise bedienen sich vitale Gameten dieser Strukturen, um andere Sexualstadien zu finden und sie zu verbinden.},
  subject      = {Plasmodium falciparum},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Kuehn2013,
  author    = {K{\"u}hn, Andrea},
  title     = {The molecular interplay of proteins expressed in the sexual stages and the induction of gamete formation in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-98028},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Transmission of the malaria parasite from man to the mosquito requires the formation of sexual parasite stages, the gametocytes. The gametocytes are the only parasite stage that is able to survive in the mosquito midgut and to undergo further development - gamete formation and fertilization. Numerous sexual stage-specific proteins have been discovered, some of which play crucial roles for parasite transmission. However, the functions of many sexual stage proteins remain elusive. Amongst the sexual stage-specific proteins are the proteins of the PfCCp proteins family, which exhibit numerous adhesion domains in their protein structures. For four members of the protein family, PfCCp1 to PfCCp4 gene-disruptant parasite lines had been already studied. Amongst these, PfCCp2 and PfCCp3 showed an important role for development of the parasites in the mosquito. In the present work the study of gene-disrupted parasites of the PfCCp Protein family was completed. PfCCp5-KO and PfFNPA-KO parasite lines were characterized to a great extent and many properties were similar to those of other PfCCp proteins. The co-dependent expression previously reported to be a phenomenon of PfCCp proteins was also observed in these two mutants, although to lesser extent. When either PfCCp5 or PfFNPA were absent, all other proteins were detected in reduced abundance only. Co-dependent expression manifests exclusively on the protein level. Transcript levels were not altered as RT-PCR showed. Amongst PfCCp proteins numerous proteinproteins interactions are taking place. The previously described multimeric protein complexes also include further sexual stage-specific proteins like Pfs230, Pfs48/45 and Pfs25. Recently, a new component of PfCCp-based multimeric protein complexes had been identified. The protein was named PfWLP1 (WD repeat protein-like protein 1) due to its possession of several WD40 repeats. In the present study expression of this uncharacterized protein was investigated via indirect IFA. It was expressed in asexual blood stages and gametocytes. Upon gamete formation and fertilization its expression ceased. Another sexual stage protein studied in this work was PfactinII. It was shown to be exclusively expressed in sexual stages. In gametocytes it co-localizes with Pfs230 and correct localization of PfactinII depends on presence of Pfs230. Transcript analysis by means of RT-PCR revealed the expression of several components of the IMC in gametocytes. Furthermore, five or six myosin genes encoded in the P. falciparum genome were detected in gametocytes. Gametocyte egress was studied on the ultrastructural level via transmission electron microscopy and an inside-out type of egress was observed. Firstly, the membrane of the parasitophorous vacuole (PVM) was lysed and only thereafter the membrane of the red blood cell (RBCM) ruptured. Furthermore, a new inductor of gametogenesis was identified: The K+/H+ ionophore nigericin induced gametocytes activation in the absence of xanthurenic acid (XA), which is responsible for gamtetocyte activation in the mosquito midgut. Selective permeabilization of RBCM and PVM by the mild detergent saponin, showed that in the absence of these membranes male gametocytes were still able to perceive both XA and the drop in temperature. Thus, the receptors for both factors signaling the parasite transmission to the mosquito, seem to be of parasitic origin. LC/MS/MS analysis confirmed the ability of RBCs to take up XA. With malaria eradication on the agenda of malaria research targeting the sexual stages becomes a crucial part of intervention strategies. The sexual stages are especially attractive target as they represent a population bottleneck. The here reported findings on P. falciparum gametocytes provide several potential candidate proteins for developing tools to interrupt transmission from man to mosquito. Such tools might include Transmission blocking vaccines and drugs.},
  subject      = {Malaria},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Kern2014,
  author    = {Kern, Selina Melanie},
  title     = {Functional characterization of splicing-associated kinases in the blood stages of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-115219},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {Besides HIV and tuberculosis, malaria still is one of the most devastating infectious diseases especially in developing countries, with Plasmodium falciparum being responsible for the frequently lethal form of malaria tropica. It is a major cause of mortality as well as morbidity, whereby pregnant women and children under the age of five years are most severely affected. Rapidly emerging drug resistances and the lack of an effective and safe vaccine hamper the combat against malaria by chemical and pharmacological regimens, and moreover the poor socio-economic and healthcare conditions in malaria-endemic countries are compromising the extermination of this deadly tropical disease to a large extent. Malaria research is still questing for druggable targets in the parasitic protozoan which pledge to be refractory against evolving resistance-mediating mutations and yet constitute affordable and compliant antimalarial chemotherapeutics. The parasite kinome consists of members that represent most eukaryotic protein kinase groups, but also contains several groups that can not be assigned to conservative ePK groups. Moreover, given the remarkable divergence of plasmodial kinases in respect to the human host kinome and the fact that several plasmodial kinases have been identified that are essential for the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle, these parasite enzymes represent auspicious targets for antimalarial regimens. Despite elaborate investigations on several other ePK groups, merely scant research has been conducted regarding the four identified members of the cyclin-dependent kinase-like kinase (CLK) family, PfCLK-1-4. In other eukaryotes, CLKs are involved in mRNA processing and splicing by means of phosphorylation of serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, which are crucial components of the splicing machinery in the alternative splicing pathway. All four PfCLKs are abundantly expressed in asexual parasites and gametocytes, and stage-specific expression profiles of PfCLK-1 and PfCLK-2 exhibited nucleus-associated localization and an association with phosphorylation activity. In the course of this study, PfCLK-3 and PfCLK-4 were functionally characterized by indirect immunofluorescence, Western blot analysis and kinase activity assays. These data confirm that the two kinases are primarily expressed in the nucleus of trophozoites and both kinases possess in vitro phosphorylation activity on physiological substrates. Likewise PfCLK-1 and PfCLK-2, reverse genetic studies exhibited the indispensability of both PfCLKs on the asexual life cycle of P. falciparum, rendering them as potential candidates for antiplasmodial strategies. Moreover, this study was conducted to identify putative SR proteins as substrates of all four PfCLKs. Previous alignments revealed a significant homology of the parasite CLKs to yeast SR protein kinase Sky1p. Kinase activity assays showed in vitro phosphorylation of the yeast Sky1p substrate and SR protein Npl3p by precipitated PfCLKs. In addition, four homologous plasmodial SR proteins were identified that are phosphorylated by PfCLKs in vitro: PfASF-1, PFSRSF12, PfSFRS4 and PfSR-1. All four parasite SR splicing factors are predominantly expressed in the nuclei of trophozoites. For PfCLK-1, a co-localization with the SR proteins was verified. Finally, a library of human and microbial CLK inhibitors and the antiseptic chlorhexidine (CHX) was screened to determine their inhibitory effect on different parasite life cycle stages and on the PfCLKs specifically. Five inhibitors out of 63 compounds from the investigated library were selected that show a moderate inhibition on asexual life cycle stages with IC50 values ranging between approximately 4 and 8 µM. Noteworthy, these inhibitors belong to the substance classes of aminopyrimidines or oxo-β-carbolines. Actually, the antibiotic compound CHX demonstrated an IC50 in the low nanomolar range. Stage-of-inhibition assays revealed that CHX severely affects the formation of schizonts. All of the selected CLKs inhibitors also affect gametocytogenesis as well as gametogenesis, as scrutinized in gametocyte toxicity assays and exflagellation assays, respectively. Kinase activity assays confirm a specific inhibition of CLK-mediated phosphorylation of all four kinases, when the CLK inhibitors are applied on immunoprecipitated PfCLKs. These findings on PfCLK-inhibiting compounds are initial attempts to determine putative antimalarial compounds targeting the PfCLKs. Moreover, these results provide an effective means to generate chemical kinase KOs in order to phenotypically study the role of the PfCLKs especially in splicing events and mRNA metabolism. This approach of functionally characterizing the CLKs in P. falciparum is of particular interest since the malarial spliceosome is still poorly understood and will gain further insight into the parasite splicing machinery.},
  subject      = {Plasmodium falciparum},
  language  = {en}
}