@phdthesis{Frey2001,
  author    = {Frey, Ulrich},
  title     = {Kartierung krebsrelevanter Signalwege},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-674},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2001},
  abstract  = {Die klassische Signaltransduktionskaskade, auch MAP Kinase Kaskade genannt, ist wesentlich an der Regulation zellul{\"a}rer Vorg{\"a}nge wie Proliferation, Differenzierung und Apoptose beteiligt. Proteinkinasen der Raf-Familie wirken dort als signal{\"u}bertragende Elemente, welche Membranrezeptoren nachgeschaltet sind. Diese Proteine fungieren als Proto-Onkogene, eine Ver{\"a}nderung dieser Proteine kann sie in Onkogene {\"u}berf{\"u}hren und sind wesentlich an der Krebsentstehung beteiligt. W{\"a}hrend die Rolle von c-Raf als MEK-Aktivator innnerhalb des klassischen Signaltransduktionsweges gut charakterisiert ist, so ist nur wenig {\"u}ber die beiden anderen Isoformen A-Raf und B-Raf bekannt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zwei PC12 cDNA-Bibliotheken unter Verwendung des Two-Hybrid Systems mit A-Raf und mit c-Raf zur Isolierung neuer Raf-Interaktionspartner untersucht. F{\"u}r c-Raf wurden die Wechselwirkungen mit den bekannten Interaktionspartnern best{\"a}tigt, es wurden jedoch keine neuen Bindungspartner identifiziert. Im A-Raf Two Hybrid Screen konnte zum einen Prolyl 4-Hydroxylase als Schl{\"u}sselenzym der Kollagensynthese isoliert werden. Es wurde keine Wechselwirkung zwischen Prolyl 4-Hydroxylase und c-Raf oder B-Raf beobachtet. Die Prolyl 4-Hydroxylase Bindungsstelle konnte innerhalb der N-terminalen variablen Region von A-Raf lokalisiert werden. Zum anderen wurde die Pyruvatkinase M2 als A-Raf spezifischer Bindungspartner identifiziert. F{\"u}r diese Wechselwirkung war die c-terminale Region von A-Raf ausreichend. Durch Mutation zweier Aminos{\"a}uren im c-terminalen Teil von A-Raf konnte diese Wechselwirkung verhindert werden, wobei die Interaktion zu MEK und Ras dadurch nicht beeintr{\"a}chtigt wurde. Ein kooperativer Effekt auf die Zelltransformation wurde durch Co-Transfektion von NIH Zellen mit onkogenem A-Raf und Pyruvatkinase M2 gezeigt. Diese f{\"u}hrte zu doppelt so vielen Foci wie die Transfektion mit A-Raf alleine. Die Mutation der mutmaßlichen ATP-Bindungsstelle der Pyruvatkinase M2, welche die A-Raf Pyruvatkinase M2 Kooperation blockieren sollte, verhinderte diesen synergistischen Effekt. Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf eine Regulation der Pyruvatkinase M2 durch A-Raf hin und lassen den Schluss zu, dass die funktionelle Interaktion mit der Pyruvatkinase M2 durch onkogenes A-Raf f{\"u}r die Zelltransformation notwendig ist. Als zwei neue Raf-Interaktionspartner wurden Prolyl 4-Hydroxylase und Pyruvatkinase M2 identifiziert, welche Raf-Isoform spezifische Bindung zeigen. Auf diese Weise konnte eine direkte Verbindung zwischen der transformierenden MAP Kinase Kaskade und dem Energiestoffwechsel hergestellt werden.},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Buttmann2002,
  author    = {Buttmann, Mathias},
  title     = {Molekularbiologische Untersuchung intrazellul{\"a}rer Signalwege, die in T-Lymphozyten zur Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors NF-ATc f{\"u}hren},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-1181516},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2002},
  abstract  = {Der Transkriptionsfaktor NF-ATc (Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells) kontrolliert die Genexpression in T-Lymphozyten. In dieser Arbeit, in der Jurkat-T-Zellen und embryonale 293-Zellen als Modellsysteme verwendet wurden, konnte gezeigt werden, daß die N-terminale transaktivierende Dom{\"a}ne TAD-A von NF-ATc in vivo induzierbar durch den Phorbolester TPA, in vitro durch die MAP-Kinase Erk2 phosphoryliert wird. In Transfektionsexperimenten mit einer TAD-A-Mutante, in der alle f{\"u}nf Serinreste, die theoretisch durch MAP-Kinasen phosphoryliert werden k{\"o}nnen, durch Alaninreste ersetzt worden waren, konnte gezeigt werden, daß diese Phosphorylierung nicht notwendig f{\"u}r die Aktivierung von TAD-A ist. Vielmehr gelang der Nachweis, daß verschiedene MAP-Kinasen-Signalwege ihre Wirkung auf NF-ATc {\"u}ber die transkriptionellen Koaktivatoren CBP und p300 entfalten, die an die N-terminale transaktivierende Dom{\"a}ne TAD-A von NF-ATc binden und dessen Aktivit{\"a}t kontrollieren. Der Nachweis, daß konstitutiv aktive Mutanten von c-Raf und Rac synergistisch die CBP/p300-vermittelte TAD-A-Aktivierung verst{\"a}rken, unterstreicht die wichtige Rolle, die CBP/p300 bei der Integration von T-Zell-Aktivierungssignalen spielt.},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Gise2007,
  author    = {Gise, Alexander von},
  title     = {Suppression der Apoptose durch C-Raf erfordert MEK1 und Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase abh{\"a}ngige Signale},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-24947},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2007},
  abstract  = {Unterhalb des Interleukin 3 (Il-3) Rezeptors sind zwei Ras-abh{\"a}ngige Signalwege beschrieben, die entweder zur Aktivierung von C-Raf oder von PI3-Kinase (PI3K)/Proteinkinase B (PKB, AKT) f{\"u}hren und Wachstum und {\"U}berleben vermitteln. Fr{\"u}here Untersuchungen des Mechanismus, {\"u}ber den C-Raf Apoptose unterdr{\"u}ckt, zeigten die Notwendigkeit einer Anwesenheit der zytoplasmatischen Kinase an den Mitochondrien. Diese Translokation konnte entweder durch {\"U}berexpression des antiapoptotischen Proteins Bcl-2 oder aber durch Fusion der Kinase mit dem mitochondriellen Protein Mas p70 erreicht werden. Aktiviertes mitochondriell gebundenes C-Raf ist nicht in der Lage ERK1 und ERK2 zu aktivieren, vermag aber durch Inaktivierung des proapoptotischen Bcl-2 Familienmitgliedes BAD Apoptose zu unterdr{\"u}cken. Ungeachtet dieser Ergebnisse deuteten andere genetische und biochemische Untersuchungen auch auf eine Bedeutung der Raf Effektoren MEK und ERK in der Unterdr{\"u}ckung des programmierten Zelltodes hin. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde daher die Bedeutung von MEK und MEK-abh{\"a}ngigen Signalwegen f{\"u}r das zellul{\"a}res {\"U}berleben untersucht. Wir nutzten f{\"u}r diese Untersuchungen {\"u}berwiegend die Il-3 abh{\"a}ngige Zelllinie 23D. MEK war essentiell f{\"u}r das zellul{\"a}re {\"U}berleben und Wachstum nach Stimulation durch Il-3. Eine konstitutiv aktive MEK1 Mutante verz{\"o}gerte signifikant das Einsetzen der Apoptose nach Entzug des Wachstumsfaktors, w{\"a}hrend eine dominant negative Mutante den Zelltod akzelerierte. In der Fibroblastenzelllinie NIH 3T3 unterdr{\"u}ckte eine konstitutiv aktive Mutante von ERK2, {\"a}hnlich effektiv wie onkogenes MEK, durch Doxorubicin induzierten Zelltod. Diese Beobachtung l{\"a}sst auf einen, das {\"U}berleben der Zelle vermittelnden, Signalweg von MEK schließen, der zur Aktivierung von ERK f{\"u}hrt. Der protektive Effekt von aktiviertem MEK in 32D Zellen wurde durch MEK- und PI3K-abh{\"a}ngige Mechanismen vermittelt. Die dabei beobachtete Aktivierung von PI3K f{\"u}hrt zur Phosphorylierung und Aktivierung von AKT. Die Abh{\"a}ngigkeit von MEK und PI3K Signalwegen konnte auch f{\"u}r den Schutz von 32D Zellen vor Apoptose durch onkogenes C-Raf gezeigt werden. Diese Befunde ließen sich ebenso in der Il-3 abh{\"a}ngigen pro-B Zelllinie BaF3 verifizieren, was darauf schließen l{\"a}sst, dass die Rekrutierung von MEK/ERK im antiapoptotischen Signalweg von aktiviertem Raf ein allgemeing{\"u}ltiger Mechanismus ist. Dass in diesem antiapoptotischen Signalweg von C-Raf auch der PI3K Effektor AKT notwendig ist zeigten weitere Untersuchungen, in denen eine dominant negative Mutante von AKT den protektiven Effekt von aktiviertem C-Raf inhibierte, w{\"a}hrend eine konstitutiv aktive Form von AKT einen synergistischen Effekt mit C-Raf in der Unterdr{\"u}ckung der Apoptose hatte. Diese Daten zeigen einen, zellul{\"a}res {\"U}berleben vermittelnden Effekt von Raf, der durch MEK und AKT vermittelt wird.},
  subject      = {Apoptosis},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Fischer2010,
  author    = {Fischer, Andreas},
  title     = {The Role of Protein-Protein Interactions in the Activation Cycle of RAF Kinases},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-48139},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {Members of the RAF protein kinase family are key regulators of diverse cellular processes. The need for isoform-specific regulation is reflected by the fact that all RAFs not only display a different degree of activity but also perform isoform-specific functions at diverse cellular compartments. Protein-protein-interactions and phosphorylation events are essential for the signal propagation along the Ras-RAF-MEK-ERK cascade. More than 40 interaction partners of RAF kinases have been described so far. Two of the most important regulators of RAF activity, namely Ras and 14-3-3 proteins, are subject of this work. So far, coupling of RAF with its upstream modulator protein Ras has only been investigated using truncated versions of RAF and regardless of the lipidation status of Ras. We quantitatively analyzed the binding properties of full-length B- and C-RAF to farnesylated H-Ras in presence and absence of membrane lipids. While the isolated Ras-binding domain of RAF exhibit a high binding affinity to both, farnesylated and nonfarnesylated H-Ras, the full-length RAF kinases demonstrate crucial differences in their affinity to Ras. In contrast to C-RAF that requires carboxyterminal farnesylated H-Ras for interaction at the plasma membrane, B-RAF also binds to nonfarnesylated H-Ras in the cytosol. For identification of the potential farnesyl binding site we used several fragments of the regulatory domain of C-RAF and found that the binding of farnesylated H-Ras is considerably increased in the presence of the cysteine-rich domain of RAF. In B-RAF a sequence of 98 amino acids at the extreme N terminus enables binding of Ras independent of its farnesylation status. The deletion of this region altered Ras binding as well as kinase properties of B-RAF to resemble C-RAF. Immunofluorescence studies in mammalian cells revealed essential differences between B- and C-RAF regarding the colocalization with Ras. In conclusion, our data suggest that that B-RAF, in contrast to C-RAF, is also accessible for nonfarnesylated Ras in the cytosolic environment due to its prolonged N terminus. Therefore, the activation of B-RAF may take place both at the plasma membrane and in the cytosolic environment. Furthermore, the interaction of RAF isoforms with Ras at different subcellular sites may also be governed by the complex formation with 14-3-3 proteins. 14-3-3 adapter proteins play a crucial role in the activation of RAF kinases, but so far no information about the selectivity of the seven mammalian isoforms concerning RAF association and activation is available. We analyzed the composition of in vivo RAF/14-3-3 complexes isolated from mammalian cells with mass spectrometry and found that B-RAF associates with a greater variety of 14-3-3 proteins than C- and A-RAF. In vitro binding assays with purified proteins supported this observation since B-RAF showed highest affinity to all seven 14-3-3 isoforms, whereas C-RAF exhibited reduced affinity to some and A-RAF did not bind to the 14-3-3 isoforms epsilon, sigma, and tau. To further examine this isoform specificity we addressed the question of whether both homo- and heterodimeric forms of 14-3-3 proteins participate in RAF signaling. By deleting one of the two 14-3-3 isoforms in Saccharomyces cerevisiae we were able to show that homodimeric 14-3-3 proteins are sufficient for functional activation of B- and C-RAF. In this context, the diverging effect of the internal, inhibiting and the activating C-terminal 14-3-3 binding domain in RAF could be demonstrated. Furthermore, we unveil that prohibitin stimulates C-RAF activity by interfering with 14-3-3 at the internal binding site. This region of C-RAF is also target of phosphorylation as part of a negative feedback loop. Using tandem MS we were able to identify so far unknown phosphorylation sites at serines 296 and 301. Phosphorylation of these sites in vivo, mediated by activated ERK, leads to inhibition of C-RAF kinase activity. The relationship of prohibitin interference with 14-3-3 binding and phosphorylation of adjacent sites has to be further elucidated. Taken together, our results provide important new information on the isoform-specific regulation of RAF kinases by differential interaction with Ras and 14-3-3 proteins and shed more light on the complex mechanism of RAF kinase activation.},
  subject      = {Signaltransduktion},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Pei2000,
  author    = {Pei, Geng},
  title     = {The Role of Raf-mediated Signalling Pathways for Motoneuron},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-1846},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2000},
  abstract  = {The transmission of proliferative and developmental signals from activated cell-surface receptors to initiation of cellular responses in the nucleus is synergically controlled by the coordinated action of a diverse set of intracellular signalling proteins. The Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK signalling pathway has been shown to control the expression of genes which are crucial for the physiological regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Within this signalling cascade, the Raf protein family of serine/threonine kinases serves as a central intermediate which connects to many of other signal transduction pathways. To elucidate the signalling functions of the different Raf kinases in motoneurons during development, the expression, distribution and subcellular localization of Rafs in the spinal cord and the facial nucleus in brainstem of mice at various embryonic and postnatal stages were investigated. Moreover, we have investigated the intracellular redistribution of Raf molecules in isolated motoneurons from 13 or 14 day old mouse embryos, after addition or withdrawal of neurotrophic factors to induce Raf kinases activation in vitro. Furthermore, in order to investigate the potential anti-apoptotic function of Raf kinases on motoneurons, we isolated motoneurons from B-raf-/- and c-raf-1-/- mouse embryos and analysed the survival and differentiation effects of neurotrophic factors in motoneurons lacking B-Raf and c-Raf-1. We provide evidence here that all three Raf kinases are expressed in mouse spinal motoneurons. Their expression increases during the period of naturally occurring cell death of motoneurons. In sections of embryonic and postnatal spinal cord, motoneurons express exclusively B-Raf and c-Raf-1, but not A-Raf, and subcellularly Raf kinases are obviously colocalized with mitochondria. In isolated motoneurons, most of the B-Raf or c-Raf-1 immunoreactivity is located in the perinuclear space but also in the nucleus, especially after activation by addition of CNTF and BDNF in vitro. We found that c-Raf-1 translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus of motoneurons after its activation by neurotrophic factors is a distinct event. As a central finding of our study, we observed that the viability of isolated motoneurons from B-raf but not c-raf-1 knockout mice is lost even in the presence of CNTF and other neurotrophic factors. This indicates that B-Raf but not c-Raf-1, which is still present in B-raf deficient motoneurons, plays a crucial role in mediating the survival effect of neurotrophic factors during development. In order to prove that B-Raf is an essential player in this scenario, we have re-expressed B-Raf in mutant sensory and motor neurons by transfection. The motoneurons and the sensory neurons from B-raf knockout mouse which were transfected with exogenous B-raf gene revealed the same viability in the presence of neurotrophic factors as primary neurons from wild-type mice. Our results suggest that Raf kinases have important signalling functions in motoneurons in mouse CNS. In vitro, activation causes redistribution of Raf protein kinases, particularly for c-Raf-1, from motoneuronal cytoplasm into the nucleus. This redistribution of c-Raf-1, however, is not necessary for the survival effect of neurotrophic factors, given that B-raf-/- motor and sensory neurons can not survive despite the presence of c-Raf-1. We hypothesize that c-Raf-1 nuclear translocation may play a direct role in transcriptional regulation as a consequence of neurotrophic factor induced phosphorylation and activation of c-Raf-1 in motoneurons. Moreover, the identification of target genes for nuclear translocated c-Raf-1 and of specific cellular functions initiated by this mechanism awaits its characterization.},
  subject      = {Maus},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Luetkenhaus2010,
  author    = {L{\"u}tkenhaus, Katharina},
  title     = {Tumour development in Raf-driven cancer mouse models},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-48332},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2010},
  abstract  = {Metastasis is the cause of death in 90\% of cancer-related deaths in men. Melanoma and Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) are both tumour types with poor prognosis, lacking appropriate therapeutic possibilities, not least because of their high rate of metastasis. Thus understanding the process of metastasis might unravel therapeutic targets for developing further therapeutic strategies. The generation of a transgenic mouse model expressing B-RafV600E in melanocytes, a mutation that is found in about 60\% of all melanoma, would result in an ideal tool to study melanoma progression and metastasis. In this work, a doxycycline-inducible system was constructed for expression of B-RafV600E and transgenic animals were generated, but the expression system has to be improved, since this strategy didn't give rise to any viable, transgene carrying mice. Furthermore, since it was shown in the work of others that the metastatic behavior of tumour cell lines could be reversed by an embryonic microenvironment and the influence of a tumourigenic microenvironment on melanocytes lead to the acquisition of tumour cell-like characteristics, the question arose, whether B-Raf is as important in melanocyte development as it is in melanoma progression. In this work, the embryonal melanocyte development in B-Raf-deficient and wildtype mouse embryos was examined and there were no differences observed in the localization and number of neural crest stem cells as well as in the localization of the dopachrome-tautomerase positive melanoblasts in the embryos and in cultured neural tube explants. The expression of oncogenic C-Raf in lung epithelial cells has yielded a model for NSCLC giving rise to adenomas lacking spontaneous progression or metastasis. The co-expression of c-Myc in the same cells accelerates the tumour development and gives rise to liver and lymphnode metastases. The expression of c-Myc alone in lung epithelial cells leads to late tumour development with incomplete penetrance. A mutation screen in this work resulted in the observation that a secondary mutation in KRas or LKB1 is necessary for tumour formation in the c-Myc single transgenic animals and suggested metastasis as an early event, since the corresponding metastases of the mutation-prone primary lung tumours were negative for the observed mutations. Furthermore, in this work it was shown that the expression of chicken c-Myc in a non-metastatic NSCLC cell line leads to metastatic clones, showing that c-Myc is sufficient to induce metastasis. Additionally a panel of metastasis markers was identified, that might serve as diagnostic markers in the future.},
  subject      = {Raf <Biochemie>},
  language  = {en}
}