@phdthesis{Rumpel2024,
  author    = {Rumpel, Matthias},
  title     = {Development of Components for Solid-State Batteries and their Characterization},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-34715},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-347154},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2024},
  abstract  = {This Ph.D. thesis has addressed several main issues in current ASSB research within four studies. Ceramic ASSBs are meant to enable the implementation of Li-metal anodes and high voltage cathode materials, which would increase energy density, power density, life time as well as safety aspects in comparison with commercially available liquid electrolyte LiBs. In this thesis, several scientific questions arising on the cathode side of ASSBs have been focused on. With respect to the target system of a ternary composite bulk cathode consisting of ceramic active material, ceramic SSE and an electrically conductive component, studies about the thermal stabilities of these components and their impact on the electrochemical performance have been conducted. Particulate bulk cathode composites have to fulfil electrochemical, chemical, mechanical and structural requirements in order to compete with commercial LiBs. Particularly, the production process requires high-temperature sintering to obtain firmly bonded contacts in order to maximize the electrochemically active area, charge transfer and ionic conduction. However, interdiffusion, intermixing and decomposition of the initial components during sintering result in low-performing ASSBs so far. These side reactions during high-temperature treatment have been investigated in order to gain a better understanding of these mechanisms and to enable a better controlling of the manufacturing process as well as to simplify the choice of material combinations. The first two parts of this thesis deal with the thermal stability of the ceramic SSE LATP in combination with various active materials and with the validation of a probable improvement of the sintering process due to liquid phase sintering of LATP by adding Li3PO4. In the third and fourth parts, the impact of interdiffusion, intermixing and decomposition on the electrochemical performance of TF-SSBs based on the active material LMO and the ceramic SSE Ga-LLZO has been investigated.},
  subject      = {Elektrochemie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Bauer2023,
  author    = {Bauer, Christian},
  title     = {Towards ecological and efficient electrochemical energy storage in supercapacitors and sodium ion batteries using onion-like carbon},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-31795},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-317956},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {In this thesis, the usage of onion-like carbon (OLC) for energy storage applications was researched regarding sustainability, performance and processability. This work targets to increase the scientific understanding regarding the role of OLC in electrodes and to facilitate a large-scale production, which is the foundation for commercial application. Research was devoted to increase the knowledge in the particular field, to yield synergistic approaches and a shared value regarding sustainability and performance.},
  subject      = {Elektrochemie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Bozkaya2023,
  author    = {Bozkaya, Beg{\"u}m},
  title     = {Influence of Carbon Additives on the Electrochemical Performance of Modern Lead-Acid Batteries},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-31917},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-319174},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {In the first part of this thesis, a validation of both short-term and long-term DCA tests on 2 V laboratory cells is focussed. The aim is to improve the laboratory cell level measurement technology for dynamic charge acceptance regarding the investigation of carbon additives. To address this issue, it is crucial to apply carbon additives generating a remarkable difference in charge acceptance. For this purpose, five different carbon additives providing a variation in the specific external surface were included as additives in the negative plates of 2 V lead-acid cells. Both short-term (charge acceptance test 2 from SBA and DCA from EN) and long-term (Run-in DCA from Ford) DCA tests were executed on the lead-acid cells. Further understanding of the mechanism was studied by applying electrochemical methods like cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The second part of this thesis aims to understand the impact of carbon surface functional groups on the electrochemical activity of the negative electrodes as well as the DCA of 2 V lead-acid cells. In order to address this topic, commercially available activated carbon was modified by different chemical treatments to incorporate specific surface functional groups in the carbon structure. A series of activated carbons having a broad range of pH was prepared, which were used as additives in the negative electrodes. The corresponding lead-acid cells were subjected to cyclic voltammetry and DCA test according to EN. Further, the physical and chemical properties of the functionalized carbon additives were intensively analyzed to establish a structure-property relationship with a focus on DCA.},
  subject      = {Bleiakkumulator},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{WulfertHolzmann2022,
  author    = {Wulfert-Holzmann, Paul},
  title     = {Die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des negativen Aktivmaterials moderner Blei-S{\"a}ure-Batterien},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-29839},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-298397},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Diese Doktorarbeit besch{\"a}ftigt sich mit dem Wirkmechanismus der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit in Blei-S{\"a}ure-Batterien. Obwohl ihm eine zentrale Rolle beim „Kohlenstoff-Effekt" zugeordnet wird, ist der Wirkmechanismus der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit bislang vergleichsweise wenig untersucht worden und konnte dementsprechend noch nicht vollst{\"a}ndig aufgekl{\"a}rt werden. Mit dem Anspruch, diese Forschungsl{\"u}cke zu schließen, zielt die vorliegende Doktorarbeit darauf ab, den Einfluss der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit auf die Performance der Blei-S{\"a}ure-Batterie systematisch herauszuarbeiten und so einen Beitrag zur Generierung neuer Entwicklungsans{\"a}tze zu leisten, z. B. in Form von maßgeschneiderten Additiven. Bislang ist noch unklar, ob allein die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Aktivmaterials relevant ist oder diese auch durch Additive beeinflusst wird. Das liegt vor allem daran, dass geeignete Messmethoden fehlen und deshalb der Einfluss von Additiven auf die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Aktivmaterials wenig untersucht wurde. Deswegen zielt diese Arbeit auch darauf ab, eine neuartige Messmethode zu entwickeln, um die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Aktivmaterials im laufenden Betrieb bestimmen zu k{\"o}nnen. Aufgrund der Vorkenntnisse und Vorarbeiten am Fraunhofer ISC werden die Untersuchungen dabei auf die negative Elektrode limitiert. Insgesamt unterteilt sich die Doktorarbeit in die zwei Abschnitte. Im ersten Abschnitt werden elektrisch isolierende St{\"o}ber-Silica als Additive im negativen Aktivmaterial eingesetzt, um den Einfluss der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Additivs auf die elektrochemischen Eigenschaften der Batterie herauszustellen. Untersucht wird dabei die u.a. die Doppelschichtkapazit{\"a}t, die Wasserstoffentwicklung und die dynamische Ladeakzeptanz. Im zweiten Abschnitt steht die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des negativen Aktivmaterials im Fokus. Es wird zun{\"a}chst eine neue Messmethodik entwickelt, die ihre in-situ- und operando-Bestimmung erm{\"o}glicht. Nach einer umfassenden Evaluierung und der Betrachtung verschiedener Betriebsparameter wird die Methodik f{\"u}r eine erste proof-of-concept-Messreihe angewendet, um den Einfluss von Additiven auf die elektrische Leitf{\"a}higkeit des negativen Aktivmaterials zu untersuchen.},
  subject      = {Bleiakkumulator},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Voelckel2022,
  author    = {Voelckel, Markus},
  title     = {Zeitaufgel{\"o}ste Spektroskopie von nanoskaligen Halbleitern und Pyrenderivaten},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-27611},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-276119},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Um den jahrtausendealten Weg der Menschheit vom Papyrus {\"u}ber Buchdruck und siliziumbasierte Halbleiter in Richtung noch leistungsf{\"a}higerer Technologien zu gehen und weiterhin Heureka-Momente zu schaffen, bieten Kohlenstoffnanor{\"o}hren ein weites Forschungsfeld. Besonders die halbleitenden Charakteristika von SWNTs sowie die Manipulation dieser durch Dotierung bergen viele M{\"o}glichkeiten f{\"u}r zuk{\"u}nftige Anwendungen in moderner Elektrotechnologie. Der Weg zu einer industriellen Implementierung von SWNTs in neuartigen optoelektronischen Bauteilen ließe sich durch eine Ausweitung des Wissens bez{\"u}glich SWNTs und der dotierungsbasierten Anpassung ihrer Eigenschaften ebnen. Mit dieser Erkenntniserweiterung als Zielsetzung wurden im Rahmen dieser Dissertation halbleitende, einwandige (6,5)-Kohlenstoffnanor{\"o}hren als chiralit{\"a}tsreine, polymerstabilisierte Proben untersucht. Die ultrakurzzeitaufgel{\"o}ste Spektroskopie der SWNTs erfolgte an organischen Suspensionen wie auch D{\"u}nnschichtfilmen, die je mittels eines gewissen Quantums an Gold(III)-chlorid dotiert worden waren. So konnten die ablaufenden Dynamiken auf einer ps-Zeitskala untersucht werden. In Kapitel 4 konnte mittels transienter Absorptionsexperimente an redoxchemisch p-dotierter SWNT-Suspensionen zun{\"a}chst gezeigt werden, dass sich die bei optischer Anregung gebildeten Trionen nicht analog zu Exzitonen diffusiv entlang der Nanor{\"o}hre bewegen, sondern lokalisiert vorliegen. Die l{\"a}ngere trionischen Zerfallsdauer nach X\$_1\$- verglichen mit X\$_1^+\$-resonanter Anregung zeugt außerdem davon, dass das Trion aus dem Exziton gespeist wird. Der Einfluss der Dotierung auf die Zerfallsdynamiken von X\$_1\$ und X\$_1^+\$ wurde an SWNT-D{\"u}nnschichtfilmen untersucht. Das Photobleichsignal des Exzitons verschiebt hypsochrom und zerf{\"a}llt schneller mit zunehmender Ladungstr{\"a}gerdichte durch h{\"o}herer Gold(III)-chloridkonzentrationen. Dies resultiert aus dem verringerten Abstand zwischen den Ladungstr{\"a}gern, welche als nichtstrahlende L{\"o}schstellen fungieren. F{\"u}r das X\$_1^+\$-PB ist ein {\"a}hnliches Verhalten zu beobachten. Dabei wird dieses Signal mit weiter steigender Dotierung von einer der H-Bande zuzuordnenden Photoabsorption {\"u}berlagert. Diese l{\"a}sst sich in einer starken S{\"a}ttigung der Dotierung wie auch einer hohen Bandkantenverschiebung begr{\"u}nden. In Kapitel 5 wurde die Gr{\"o}ße der Exzitonen und Trionen in dotierten SWNT-D{\"u}nnschichtfilmen mittels des Phasenraumf{\"u}llmodells bestimmt. Dabei lag besonderes Augenmerk auf der Kompensation des PB/PA-{\"U}berlapps, dem schnellen Zerfall, einem Ausgleich von Differenzen zwischen Anrege- und Absorptionsspektrum sowie dem Anteil intrinsischer/dotierter Nanorohrsegmente, um korrigierte Gr{\"o}ßen \$\xi_\mathrm{k}\$ zu erhalten. F{\"u}r die Trionengr{\"o}ße wurde zus{\"a}tzlich der {\"U}berlapp der Absorptionsbanden einbezogen, um korrigierte Werte \$\xi_{\mathrm{T,k}}\$ zu bestimmen. \$\xi_\mathrm{k}\$ betr{\"a}gt in der intrinsischen Form 6\$\pm\$2\,nm und bleibt bis zu einer Ladungstr{\"a}gerdichte \$n_{\mathrm{LT}}<0.10\$\,nm\$^{-1}\$ etwa gleich, anschließend ist ein Absinken bis auf etwa 4\,nm bei \$n_{\mathrm{LT}}\approx0.20\$\,nm\$^{-1}\$ zu beobachten. F{\"u}r diesen Trend ist die {\"U}berlagerung von Exziton- und H-Bande verantwortlich, da so der Faktor zur Bestimmung des Anteils intrinsischer Nanorohrsegmente an der SWNT verf{\"a}lscht wird. Die Abweichung der intrinsischen Gr{\"o}ße von den in der Literatur berichteten 13\$\pm\$3\,nm ist m{\"o}glicherweise auf Unterschiede in der Probenpr{\"a}paration zur{\"u}ckzuf{\"u}hren. F{\"u}r die Trionengr{\"o}ße ergibt sich bei steigender Dotierung ein {\"a}hnliches Verhalten: Sie betr{\"a}gt f{\"u}r \$n_{\mathrm{LT}}<0.20\$\,nm\$^{-1}\$ 1.83\$\pm\$0.47\,nm, was in der Gr{\"o}ßenordnung in guter {\"U}bereinstimmung mit der Literatur ist. F{\"u}r h{\"o}here Dotierungen sinkt \$\xi_{\mathrm{T,k}}\$ bis auf 0.92\$\pm\$0.26nm ab. Dies erkl{\"a}rt sich dadurch, dass bei h{\"o}herer \$n_{\mathrm{LT}}\$ die H-Bande das Spektrum dominiert, sodass der Einfluss der Absorptionsbanden{\"u}berlagerung nicht mehr vollst{\"a}ndig durch den entsprechenden Korrekturfaktor kompensiert werden kann. Kapitel 6 besch{\"a}ftigte sich anstelle redoxchemischer Dotierung der nanoskaligen Halbleiter mit der (spektro-)elektrochemischen Untersuchung von Vorl{\"a}ufern molekularer Radikale. SWV-Messungen weisen dabei darauf hin, dass die Pyrene Pyr1-Pyr3 entsprechend der Anzahl ihrer Substituenten bei Reduktion Mono-, Bi- beziehungsweise Tetraradikale bilden. Die strukturelle {\"A}hnlichkeit der Molek{\"u}le {\"a}ußert sich in gleichen Reduktionspotentialen wie auch {\"a}hnlichen potentialabh{\"a}ngigen Absorptionsspektren. W{\"a}hrend nur marginale Unterschiede in den PL-Spektren der neutralen und reduzierten Spezies festgestellt werden konnte, lieferte das zeitkorrelierte Einzelphotonenz{\"a}hlen aufschlussreichere Ergebnisse: So wird die Fluoreszenzlebensdauer stark von der Polarit{\"a}t der Umgegbung beeinflusst - bereits die Zugabe des Leitsalzes f{\"u}hrt hier zu {\"A}nderungen. Die durchschnittliche Fluoreszenzlebensdauer \$\tau_{\mathrm{av}}\$ sinkt außerdem mit Reduktion und Radikalbildung; f{\"u}r h{\"o}here Emissionswellenl{\"a}ngen ist \$\tau_{\mathrm{av}}\$ außerdem h{\"o}her. Insgesamt verdeutlichten die Experimente die gute Abschirmung zwischen Pyrenkern und Naphthalimidsubstituenten der Molek{\"u}le sowie die Sensibilit{\"a}t gegen{\"u}ber dem Medium durch TICT, das Vorhandensein von Bi- und Tetraradikalen kann allerdings nicht vollst{\"a}ndig belegt werden, wof{\"u}r EPR-Messugen notwendig w{\"a}ren.},
  subject      = {Dotierung},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Hofmann2022,
  author    = {Hofmann, Michael},
  title     = {Overcoming Obstacles in the Aqueous Processing of Nickel-rich Layered Oxide Cathode Materials},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-27378},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-273787},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {The implementation of a water-based cathode manufacturing process is attractive, given the prospect of improved sustainability of future lithium-ion batteries. However, the sensitivity of many cathode materials to water poses a huge challenge. Within the scope of this work, a correlation between the water sensitivity of cathode materials from the class of layered oxides and their elemental composition was identified. In particular for the cathode material LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (NCA), the processes taking place in aqueous medium were clarified in detail. Based on this knowledge, the surface of NCA particles could be specifically modified, which led to a reduced water sensitivity. As a result, the electrochemical performance of cells with water-based NCA cathodes was significantly improved and a remarkable long-term cycling performance was achieved. The present work contributes to a deeper understanding of the water sensitivity of cathode materials and at the same time presents a promising approach to overcome this obstacle. Consequently, this work advances the successful widespread realization of water-based cathode manufacturing.},
  subject      = {Elektrochemie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Macher2021,
  author    = {Macher, Sven},
  title     = {On the Effects of Moisture on Polymer-Based Electrochromic Devices},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-24240},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-242407},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {The present work builds on a conjugated electrochromic polymer with a highly transmissive and colorless bright state and its application in electrochromic devices. The main body of this work focuses on the investigation of the influence of moisture on electrochromic devices and solutions to overcome possible degradation of these devices due to moisture ingress. Firstly, a series of EDOT derivatives with a terminal double bond in the lateral sidechain to potentially achieve a highly transmissive and fully colorless bright state was investigated. All of the EDOT derivatives were electrochemically polymerized and characterized by means of (in-situ) spectroelectrochemistry. The results highlight the dramatic influence of the terminal double bond on the improved visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state. After detailed evaluation and comparison, the best performing compound, which contains a hexenyl sidechain (PEDOT-EthC6), was scaled-up by changing the deposition technique from an electrochemical to a chemical in-situ polymerization process on a R2R-pilot line in an industrially relevant environment. The R2R-processed PEDOTEthC6 half-cells were characterized in detail and provide enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state as well as short response times, improved contrast ratio, coloration efficiency and cycling stability (10 000 cycles).[21] In a second step, the novel PEDOT-EthC6 electrochromic polymer was combined with a Prussian Blue counter electrode and a solid polymer electrolyte to form an all-solid-sate ECDs based on complementary switching electrodes and PET-ITO as flexible substrates. The fabricated ECDs were optically and spectroelectrochemically characterized. Excellent functionality of the S2S-processed flexible ECDs was maintained throughout 10 000 switching cycles under laboratory conditions. The ECDs offer enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance change and color neutrality in the bright state as well as contrast ratio, coloration efficiency, cycling stability and fast response times. Furthermore, the final device assembly was transferred from a S2S-process to a continuous R2R-lamination process.[238] In a third step, the PEDOT-EthC6/PB-based ECDs were submitted to conscious environmental aging tests. The emphasis of the research presented in this work, was mainly put at the influence of moisture and possible failure mechanisms regarding the PEDOT-EthC6/PB based ECDs. An intense brown coloration of the electrodes was observed while cycling the ECDs in humid atmospheres (90\% rH) as a major degradation phenomenon. The brown coloration and a thereby accompanied loss of conductivity of the PET-ITO substrates was related to significant degradation of the ITO layers, inserted as the conductive layers in the flexible ECDs. A dissolution of the ITO thin films and formation of metallic indium particles on the surface of the ITO layers was observed that harmed the cycling stability enormously. The conductive layers of the aged ECDs were investigated by XRD, UV-Vis, SEM and spectroelectrochemical measurements and validated the supposed irreversible reduction of the ITO layers.[279] In the absence of reasonable alternatives to PET-ITO for flexible (R2R-processed) ECDs, it is also important to investigate measures to avoid the degradation of ECDs. This is primarily associated with the avoidance of appropriate electrode potentials necessary for ITO reduction in humid atmospheres. As an intrinsic action point, the electrode potentials were investigated via electrochemical measurements in a three-electrode setup of an all-solid-state ECD. Extensive knowledge on the electrode potentials allowed the voltage-induced degradation of the ITO in flexible ECDs to be avoided through the implementation of an unbalanced electrode configuration (charge density ratio of working and counter electrode). It was possible to narrow the overall operational voltage window to an extent in which irreversible ITO reduction no longer occurs. The unbalanced electrode configuration lead to an improved cycling stability without harming other characteristics such as response time and light transmittance change and allows ECD operation in the presence of humidity.[279] The avoidance of the mentioned degradation phenomena is further associated with appropriate sealing methods and materials as well as appropriate electrode and device fabrication processes. Since a variety of sealing materials is commercially available, due to the commercial launch of organic photovoltaic (OPV) and light emitting diodes (OLEDs), the focus in the present work was put to water-free electrode fabrication. As an extrinsic action point, a novel preparation method of a nanoscale PEDOT-EthC6 dispersion based on organic solvents is presented here in a final step. The water-free processing method gives access to straightforward printing and coating processes on flexible PET-ITO substrates and thus represents a promising and simplified alternative to the established PEDOT:PSS. The resulting nano-PEDOT-EthC6 thin films exhibit enhanced color neutrality and transmissivity in the bright state and are comparable to the properties of the in-situ polymerized PEDOT-EthC6 thin films.[280]},
  subject      = {Elektrochromie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Eichinger2021,
  author    = {Eichinger, Stephanie},
  title     = {Die Werke der Dr. Alexander Wacker Gesellschaft f{\"u}r elektrochemische Industrie in M{\"u}ckenberg. Unternehmenspolitik zwischen Markt und Staat in den Umbr{\"u}chen der ersten H{\"a}lfte des 20. Jahrhunderts},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-23868},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-238687},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Die Dissertation untersucht unternehmenspolitische Entscheidungen eines Chemie-Konzerns im 20. Jahrhunderts aus der Perspektive der Mikroebene.},
  subject      = {Dr. Alexander Wacker Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Elektrochemische Industrie GmbH},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Settelein2020,
  author    = {Settelein, Jochen},
  title     = {Kohlenstoffadditive f{\"u}r negative Elektroden von modernen Blei-S{\"a}ure Batterien},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-21098},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-210986},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {In vorliegender Dissertation wurde die Wirkweise von Kohlenstoffadditiven auf die verbesserten Ladeeigenschaften negativer Blei-Kohlenstoff Elektroden untersucht, wodurch ein wichtiger Beitrag f{\"u}r die Weiterentwicklung modernen Blei-S{\"a}ure Batterien geliefert wurde. Neben der Aufkl{\"a}rung der elektrochemischen Prozesse an Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}chen, trug die Arbeit dazu bei, das Verst{\"a}ndnis hinsichtlich der Rolle des Kohlenstoffs zur Erh{\"o}hung der dynamischen Stromaufnahme zu vertiefen und eine Messmethodik zur Bestimmung der Blei-Affinit{\"a}t von Graphitpulver zu entwickeln. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse dieser drei Themenfelder werden an dieser Stelle noch einmal zusammengefasst. Elektrochemische Untersuchungen an amorphem Kohlenstoff: Um ein grunds{\"a}tzliches Verst{\"a}ndnis {\"u}ber die elektrochemische Aktivit{\"a}t von Kohlenstoff in verd{\"u}nnter Schwefels{\"a}ure zu erhalten, wurden in Kapitel 4 die elektrochemisch ablaufenden Reaktion an der Phasengrenze Kohlenstoff/verd{\"u}nnte Schwefels{\"a}ure bestimmt und diskutiert. Als Messmethode diente eine rotierende Scheibenelektrode aus glasartigem Kohlenstoff. Im Gegensatz zu inerten, metallischen Elektroden, zeigte sich an glasartigem Kohlenstoff ein deutlich komplexeres Verhalten. Die Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}che ver{\"a}ndert sich in Abh{\"a}ngigkeit des anliegenden Potentials signifikant. F{\"u}r Potentiale {\"u}ber 1,0 V vs. RHE findet eine Oxidation des Kohlenstoffs statt und eine Zersetzung zu CO2. Diese Ver{\"a}nderungen haben wiederum Auswirkungen auf alle anderen elektrochemisch ablaufenden Reaktionen. So wurde durch umfassende zyklovoltammetrische Untersuchungen und mithilfe der differentiellen elektrochemischen Massenspektroskopie erstmals nachgewiesen, dass die Wasserstoffentwicklung durch kurzzeitige Oxidation des Kohlenstoffs signifikant unterdr{\"u}ckt werden kann. Zus{\"a}tzliche {\"U}berspannungen von {\"u}ber einem Volt legen den Verdacht nahe, dass die Adsorption von Protonen verhindert wird und die Zersetzung des Elektrolyten erst durch Radikalbildung bei extremen Potentialen unter 2,0 V vs. RHE stattfindet. Zuk{\"u}nftig l{\"a}sst sich dieser Effekt m{\"o}glicherweise dazu einsetzen, die Nebenreaktion in Blei-S{\"a}ure Batterien gezielt zu verringern . Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehung zwischen externer Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}che und dynamischer Stromaufnahme: Im Anschluss an die elektrochemische Analyse der reinen Kohlenstoffelektrode wurde in Kapitel 5 die Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehung von amorphem Kohlenstoff auf die elektrochemische Aktivit{\"a}t negativer Blei-Kohlenstoff-Elektroden systematisch untersucht. Hierzu wurden Elektroden aus sechs verschiedenen negativen Aktivmasserezepturen hergestellt, welche sich einzig im zugemischten Kohlenstoffadditiv unterschieden. Durch die Verwendung von Kohlenstoffpulver mit gezielt eingestellter spezifischer Oberfl{\"a}che, konnte zum ersten Mal nachgewiesen werden, dass allein die externe Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}che relevant f{\"u}r die Erh{\"o}hung der Aktivit{\"a}t der Elektrode ist. Zyklovoltammetrische Messungen zeigten, dass sowohl die Wasserstoffentwicklungsreaktion als auch die Doppelschichtkapazit{\"a}t durch eine zus{\"a}tzlich in die Aktivmasse eingebrachte externe Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}che verst{\"a}rkt wird. Erstmals wurde ein linearer Zusammenhang zwischen Doppelschichtkapazit{\"a}t und dynamischer Stromaufnahme festgestellt, der belegt, dass die Erh{\"o}hung der dynamischen Stromaufnahme auf einen reinen Oberfl{\"a}cheneffekt zur{\"u}ckzuf{\"u}hren ist. Da sowohl der Strom durch die Wasserstoffentwicklung als auch durch die Ladung der Doppelschicht nicht ausreichen, um die erh{\"o}hte Stromaufnahme zu erk{\"a}ren, muss davon ausgegangen werden, dass die Bleisulfatreduktion durch den Kohlenstoff katalysiert wird. Erkl{\"a}rungsans{\"a}tze sind eine vergr{\"o}ßerte aktive Oberfl{\"a}che an Bleisulfat aufgrund einer er{\"o}hten Porosit{\"a}t und die Adsorption des oberfl{\"a}chenaktiven Ligninsulfonats auf der Kohlenstoffoberfl{\"a}che anstelle der des Bleisulfats . Blei-Affinit{\"a}t von Graphitpulver: Abschließend wurde in Kapitel 6 eine neue Messmethodik evaluiert, um die Elektrokristallisation von Blei auf Kohlenstoffadditiven zu charakterisieren. Hierf{\"u}r wurde Bleimetall potentiostatisch aus w{\"a}ssriger L{\"o}sung auf graphitische Kohlenstoffelektroden abgeschieden und das Kristallwachstum und die Keimzahldichte anhand mikroskopischer Betrachtungen und Modellierung der Strom-Zeit-Transienten analysiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich Blei in partikul{\"a}rer Form an definierten Stellen der Graphitkristalle abscheidet und dass die Anzahl an Keimstellen durch die H{\"o}he der Abscheidespannung variiert werden kann. In Anwesenheit von Ligninsulfonat wird das Keimwachstum verlangsamt und die urspr{\"u}nglich instantane Keimbildung in eine progressive {\"u}berf{\"u}hrt. Ein f{\"u}r die Anwendung besonders relevantes Ergebnis lieferte der Vergleich zweier kommerzieller Graphitpulver, welche sowohl im Modellversuch, als auch als Additiv in negativen Bleielektroden eine signifikant unterschiedliche Keimzahldichte aufzeigten. Graphite mit einer hohen Kristallitgr{\"o}ße zeigen eine besonders hohe Bleiaffinit{\"a}t.},
  subject      = {Kohlenstoff},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Voelker2014,
  author    = {V{\"o}lker, Sebastian},
  title     = {Synthesis, Spectroscopic and Electrochemical Properties of Squaraine Polymers},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-101638},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {In this work the synthesis, the spectroscopic and electrochemical investigation as well as some applications of a broad diversity of indolenine squaraine dyes were presented. This diversity was based on two parent squaraine dyes, one standard trans-configured compound (M1) and one in which one central oxygen atom was replaced by a dicyanomethylene moiety (M2), which increased the acceptor strength and induced a cis-configuration. The variety of synthesised dyes included functionalised squaraine monomers, donor- and acceptor-substituted monomeric model squaraines, donor- and acceptor-squaraine copolymers, pure squaraine homopolymers, a squaraine-squaraine copolymer, as well as some conjugated cyclic oligomers. In order to be able to synthesise all these different kinds of dyes, several bromine and boronic ester derivatives were synthesised, which enabled the use of the Suzuki cross coupling reaction, to generate model dyes and copolymers. In addition, the bromine derivatives were used to carry out the Yamamoto homocoupling reaction to the respective homopolymers and macrocycles. The absorption maximum of unsubstituted reference dye M1 was found at ~ 15500 cm-1, while that of M2 was red-shifted to ~ 14300 cm-1 due to the increased acceptor strength of the central unit. The extinction coefficients were in the order of ~ 300000 M-1 cm-1 and ~ 200000 M-1 cm-1, respectively. It was found that the implementation of functional groups (M3-M9), additional electron donors (M10-M19) or acceptors (M20-M22) at the periphery lead to bathochromic shifts of the absorption depending on the strength of either - and/or -donating properties of the substituents. For the bis- and triarylamine substituted dyes M10-M13 and the dibrominated dyes M5 and M7 the electronic structure of the mono- and diradical (di)cations was explored using the interplay of cyclic voltammetry, spectroelectrochemistry, and DFT calculations. It was demonstrated that the monoradical cations still show a cyanine-like character and are delocalised Robin-Day class III species due to the low redox potential of the squaraine bridge between the additional amine redox centres. To the best of my knowledge, this made M13+∙, with an N-N-distance of 26 bonds between the additional redox centres to the longest bis(triarylamine) radical cation that is completely delocalised. For the diradical dications, the situation was of larger complexity. The computed most stable energetic state of the dianisylamine-substituted dyes turned out to be a broken-symmetry state with almost equal contributions of an open-shell singlet and triplet state. In addition, it was shown that the HOMO-1→HOMO transition dominated the absorption spectra of the diradical dications where the trans-/cis-configuration of the squaraines had a direct impact due to symmetry reasons. Based on the donor-squaraine model compounds M10-M19, a series of donor-squaraine copolymers was synthesised (P7-P12) in order to further red shift and broaden the low energy absorption band. However, these effects were only of marginal extent. Both the optical and the electrochemical derived band gaps were barely lowered compared to the respective monomeric model dyes. This was assigned to an increased squaraine-squaraine distance and resulting lower exciton coupling between the squaraine chromophores due to the bridging units. In addition, according to semiempirical calculations the bridges were twisted out of the squaraine plane what reduced conjugational effects between the chromophores. To sum up, the idea to insert additional electron rich bridging units in order to create copolymers with broad and red-shifted absorption did not fully work out for the presented systems. The addition of strong electron accepting NDI units at the periphery resulted in M21, the most unique monomeric model squaraine in this work. The common picture of a sharp low energy squaraine absorption completely altered due to the addition of the NDIs and a rather broad and solvent dependent low energy absorption was found. Spectroelectrochemical experiments and semiempirical calculations showed that this band is a superposition of the common squaraine HOMO→LUMO transition and a partial squaraine→NDI charge transfer transition. The latter was lost upon oxidation of the squaraine and the absorption spectrum of the monocation of M21 was found to be nearly a 1:1 image of a pure squaraine monocation. Both the monomeric model M21 and the respective copolymer P13 showed low electrochemically obtained band gaps of 1.05-1.20 eV, which were the lowest of all squaraines in this work. For both dyes, transient absorption measurements in the fs-time regime revealed the ultrafast formation of a CS state via an intermediate CT state within a few ps. Besides, charge recombination to the ground state also occured within a few ps. In the polymer, there was barely any further energy or charge transfer within the excited state lifetime and therefore the CS state was confined on adjacent squaraine-NDI pairs and did not further travel along the polymer strand. The Ni-mediated Yamamoto homocoupling reaction was applied for the synthesis of the homopolymers (P1-P5). In contrast to the donor-squaraine copolymers, those polymers revealed strongly red-shifted and broad absorption in the red to NIR region in addition to a sharp fluorescence. These features could be explained to originate mainly from the exciton coupling of localised excited states and the presence of different superstructures in solution. For the polymers P1 and P2, an elongated J-type polymer chain caused the strong lowest energy absorption band whereas a zig-zag type arrangement of the single chromophores lead to transitions into both low and high energy excited states of the excitonic manifold. For the polymers P3 and P4, several polymer fractions of different size were investigated. Here, also an elongated chain with J-type character induced the lowest energy absorption band whereas a helical H-type arrangement caused transitions to higher energies of the excitonic manifold. The fractions to which these structures were formed depended on the chain length and the solvent. In thin film measurements, it was shown that the initially in solution formed superstructures were partly retained in the thin film but could be altered by annealing procedures. A control of the superstructures should enable the controlled tuning of the optical properties. Despite the strong interaction of the chromophores in the excited state, the redox potentials of the homopolymers barely differed to those of the respective reference dyes, indicating negligible electronic interaction in the ground state. In addition squaraine-squaraine copolymer P6, consisting of alternating parent dyes M1 and M2, was synthesised. Likewise to the homopolymers, a broad and red-shifted absorption was observed. This was explained by exciton coupling theory, which was extended to also suit alternating copolymers. In toluene, an extraordinary narrow and intense lowest energy absorption band was observed. This exchange narrowing might be a result of a highly ordered J-type structure of the polymer especially in this solvent because it was not found in others. The features of the polymer may be compared to typical J-aggregates formed from monomeric cyanine molecules for example and the polymer used as model for excitonic interactions in an alternating copolymer. Transient absorption measurements revealed a strong energy dependence of the decay traces of the copolymer, most strikingly at early decay times. This was assigned to the occurrence of multiple excitations of one polymer strand (due to the large extinction coefficients of the polymer) and resulting exciton-exciton annihilation. Due to the large exciton diffusion constants that were estimated, the static exciton-exciton annihilation was the rate limiting process of the decay, in contrast to other conjugated polymers, where in thin film measurements the decay was diffusion controlled. To sum up, for the polymers consisting of exclusively squaraine chromophores, it was shown that the exciton coupling of single chromophores with strong transition dipole moments was a fruitful way to tune the absorption spectra. As a side product of some of the polycondensation reactions, unprecedented cyclic conjugated oligomers such as the triarylamine-bridged dimer Dim1, the cyclic homotrimers Tri1-Tri3, and the tetramer Tet1 were obtained by recycling GPC in low yields. Especially the cyclic trimers showed unusual absorption and even more extraordinary fluorescence properties. They showed multiple fluorescence bands in the NIR that covered a range from ~ 8000-12500 cm-1 (800-1250 nm). First hints from theoretical calculations indicated that the trimer was not fully planar but comprised a mixture of both planar and bent single squaraine chromophores. However, final results of the calculations were still missing at the time of writing. In the last part of this work, the application of some monomeric and polymeric squaraines in binary and ternary bulk heterojunction solar cells was demonstrated. Also the utilisation as a dopant in a polymer matrix in an OLED device was shown. The homopolymers P1-P4 were tested in the binary BHJ solar cells revealing poor performances and especially very low short circuit currents. The utilisation of the polymers P3 and P4 that carried the dicyanomethylene group resulted in higher open circuit voltages due to the lower LUMO energy levels but still an overall poor performance. Neither for the different alkyl chains nor for the size of the polymers was a trend observed. In the ternary BHJ solar cells, small amounts of either monomer M14 or polymers P1A, P4-1 or P13 were added to a P3HT/PCBM system in order to generate an additional pathway for charge or energy transfer that should result in a better device performance. However, for none of the tested squaraines, improved solar cells could be built. In similarity to the binary solar cells, the short circuit currents were lower compared to a P3HT/PCBM reference device. These low short circuit currents indicated that the morphology of the squaraine dyes was the major limitation in those devices. It is possible that the dimethyl groups at the indolenine hindered a favoured alignment of the compounds that would allow decent charge transport. In the squaraine doped OLED the squaraine M6 worked rather well as an NIR emitter. Already at low dye loads the fluorescence of the host polymer SY-PPV was completely quenchend and emission from the squaraine was observed. For electroluminescence measurements, a lower dye load (0.5 wt.\%) compared to the photoluminescence measurements was sufficient, indicating that apart from FRET additional quenching mechanisms were at work in the electrically driven devices such as charge carrier dynamics.},
  subject      = {Squaraine},
  language  = {en}
}