@phdthesis{Bach2017,
  author    = {Bach, Tobias},
  title     = {Electromechanical interactions in lithium-ion batteries: Aging effects and analytical use},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-153325},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {In the first part of his work, the causes for the sudden degradation of useable capacity of lithium-ion cells have been studied by means of complementary methods such as computed tomography, Post-Mortem studies and electrochemical analyses. The results obtained point unanimously to heterogeneous aging as a key-factor for the sudden degradation of cell capacity, which in turn is triggered by differences in local compression. At high states of health, the capacity fade rate is moderate but some areas of the graphite electrode degrade faster than others. Still, the localized changes are hardly noticeable on cell level due to averaging effects. Lithium plating occurs first in unevenly compressed areas, creating patterns visible to the human eye. As lithium plating leads to rapid consumption of active lithium, a sudden drop in capacity is observed on cell level. Lithium plating appears to spread out from the initial areas over the whole graphite electrode, quickly consuming the remaining useful lithium and active graphite. It can be hypothesized that a self-amplifying circle of reciprocal acceleration of local lithium loss and material loss causes rapid local degradation. Battery cell designers can improve cycle life by homogeneous pressure distribution in the cell and using negative active materials that are resilient to elevated discharge potentials such as improved carbons or lithium titanate. Also, a sufficiently oversized negative electrode and suitable electrolyte additives can help to avoid lithium plating. When packs are designed, care must be taken not to exert local pressure on parts of cells and to avoid both very high and low states of charge. In the second part of this dissertation the resilience of cylindrical and pouchbag cells to shocks and different vibrations was investigated. Stresses inflicted by vibration and shock tests according to the widely recognized UN38.3 transport test were compared to a long-time test that exposed cells to a 186 days long ordeal of sine sweep vibrations with a profile based on real-world applications. All cells passed visual and electric inspection performed by TU M{\"u}nchen after the vibration tests. Only cylindrical cells subjected to long-term vibrations in axial direction showed an increase in impedance and a loss of capacity that could be recuperated in part. The detailed analyses presented in this thesis gave more details on the damages inflicted by vibrations and shocks and revealed drastic damages in some cases. In cylindrical cells, only movement in axial direction caused damage. Long term vibrations were found to be especially detrimental. No damage whatsoever could be detected for pouch cells, regardless of the test protocol and the direction of movement. The extreme resilience of pouchbag cells shows that the electrode stack of lithium-ion cells is resistant to vibrations, and that damages are caused by design imperfections that can be improved at low cost. The findings of this work, and the general state of research show that it is most crucial to control the lithiation and thus potential of the graphite electrode. In the last part of this work, a new, direct method for charge estimation based on changing transmission is presented. A correlation between transmission of short ultrasonic pulses and state of charge is found. This new technology allows direct measurement of the state of charge. The method is demonstrated for batteries with different positive active materials, showing its versatility. As the observed changes can be traced to the lithiation of graphite, it can be determined without a reference electrode. Already at this early stage of development, the found correlations allow estimation of state of charge. The present hysteresis in the signal height of the slow wave, which is unneglectable especially during discharging at higher currents, will be subject to further investigation. The observed effects can be explained by effects on different length scales. Biot's theory explains the second wave's slowness based on the active material particles size in the range of 0.01 mm and electrolyte-filled pores. Lithiation of graphite changes the porosity of the electrode and thereby the velocity and wavelength of the impulse. When the wavelength approaches the length scale of the layers, 0.1 mm, scattering effects dampen the transmitted signal. Finally, the wavelength of the pulse should be shorter than the transducers diameter to obtain a homogeneous wave front. To conclude, the new method allows the control of each individual cell in a pack independent from the electrical connections of the cells. As the method shows great promise, further studies regarding factors such as long-term behavior, temperature and current rates should be conducted. In this thesis hysteresis was observed and a deeper understanding of the reasons behind it may allow further improvements of measurement precision.},
  subject      = {Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Gold2023,
  author    = {Gold, Lukas},
  title     = {Methods for the state estimation of lithium-ion batteries},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-30618},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-306180},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {This work introduced the reader to all relevant fields to tap into an ultrasound-based state of charge estimation and provides a blueprint for the procedure to achieve and test the fundamentals of such an approach. It spanned from an in-depth electrochemical characterization of the studied battery cells over establishing the measurement technique, digital processing of ultrasonic transmission signals, and characterization of the SoC dependent property changes of those signals to a proof of concept of an ultrasound-based state of charge estimation. The State of the art \& theoretical background chapter focused on the battery section on the mechanical property changes of lithium-ion batteries during operation. The components and the processes involved to manufacture a battery cell were described to establish the fundamentals for later interrogation. A comprehensive summary of methods for state estimation was given and an emphasis was laid on mechanical methods, including a critical review of the most recent research on ultrasound-based state estimation. Afterward, the fundamentals of ultrasonic non-destructive evaluation were introduced, starting with the sound propagation modes in isotropic boundary-free media, followed by the introduction of boundaries and non-isotropic structure to finally approach the class of fluid-saturated porous media, which batteries can be counted to. As the processing of the ultrasonic signals transmitted through lithium-ion battery cells with the aim of feature extraction was one of the main goals of this work, the fundamentals of digital signal processing and methods for the time of flight estimation were reviewed and compared in a separate section. All available information on the interrogated battery cell and the instrumentation was collected in the Experimental methods \& instrumentation chapter, including a detailed step-by-step manual of the process developed in this work to create and attach a sensor stack for ultrasonic interrogation based on low-cost off-the-shelf piezo elements. The Results \& discussion chapter opened with an in-depth electrochemical and post-mortem interrogation to reverse engineer the battery cell design and its internal structure. The combination of inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry and incremental capacity analysis applied to three-electrode lab cells, constructed from the studied battery cell's materials, allowed to identify the SoC ranges in which phase transitions and staging occur and thereby directly links changes in the ultrasonic signal properties with the state of the active materials, which makes this work stand out among other studies on ultrasound-based state estimation. Additional dilatometer experiments were able to prove that the measured effect in ultrasonic time of flight cannot originate from the thickness increase of the battery cells alone, as this thickness increase is smaller and in opposite direction to the change in time of flight. Therefore, changes in elastic modulus and density have to be responsible for the observed effect. The construction of the sensor stack from off-the-shelf piezo elements, its electromagnetic shielding, and attachment to both sides of the battery cells was treated in a subsequent section. Experiments verified the necessity of shielding and its negligible influence on the ultrasonic signals. A hypothesis describing the metal layer in the pouch foil to be the transport medium of an electrical coupling/distortion between sending and receiving sensor was formulated and tested. Impedance spectroscopy was shown to be a useful tool to characterize the resonant behavior of piezo elements and ensure the mechanical coupling of such to the surface of the battery cells. The excitation of the piezo elements by a raised cosine (RCn) waveform with varied center frequency in the range of 50 kHz to 250 kHz was studied in the frequency domain and the influence of the resonant behavior, as identified prior by impedance spectroscopy, on waveform and frequency content was evaluated to be uncritical. Therefore, the forced oscillation produced by this excitation was assumed to be mechanically coupled as ultrasonic waves into the battery cells. The ultrasonic waves transmitted through the battery cell were recorded by piezo elements on the opposing side. A first inspection of the raw, unprocessed signals identified the transmission of two main wave packages and allowed the identification of two major trends: the time of flight of ultrasonic wave packages decreases with the center frequency of the RCn waveform, and with state of charge. These trends were to be assessed further in the subsequent sections. Therefore, methods for the extraction of features (properties) from the ultrasonic signals were established, compared, and tested in a dedicated section. Several simple and advanced thresholding methods were compared with envelope-based and cross-correlation methods to estimate the time of flight (ToF). It was demonstrated that the envelope-based method yields the most robust estimate for the first and second wave package. This finding is in accordance with the literature stating that an envelope-based method is best suited for dispersive, absorptive media [204], to which lithium-ion batteries are counted. Respective trends were already suggested by the heatmap plots of the raw signals vs. RCn frequency and SoC. To enable such a robust estimate, an FIR filter had to be designed to preprocess the transmitted signals and thereby attenuate frequency components that verifiably lead to a distorted shape of the envelope. With a robust ToF estimation method selected, the characterization of the signal properties ToF and transmitted energy content (EC) was performed in-depth. A study of cycle-to-cycle variations unveiled that the signal properties are affected by a long rest period and the associated relaxation of the multi-particle system "battery cell" to equilibrium. In detail, during cycling, the signal properties don't reach the same value at a given SoC in two subsequent cycles if the first of the two cycles follows a long rest period. In accordance with the literature, a break-in period, making up for more than ten cycles post-formation, was observed. During this break-in period, the mechanical properties of the system are said to change until a steady state is reached [25]. Experiments at different C-rate showed that ultrasonic signal properties can sense the non-equilibrium state of a battery cell, characterized by an increasing area between charge and discharge curve of the respective signal property vs. SoC plot. This non-equilibrium state relaxes in the rest period following the discharge after the cut-off voltage is reached. The relaxation in the rest period following the charge is much smaller and shows little C-rate dependency as the state is prepared by constant voltage charging at the end of charge voltage. For a purely statistical SoC estimation approach, as employed in this work, where only instantaneous measurements are taken into account and the historic course of the measurement is not utilized as a source of information, the presence of hysteresis and relaxation leads to a reduced estimation accuracy. Future research should address this issue or even utilize the relaxation to improve the estimation accuracy, by incorporating historic information, e.g., by using the derivative of a signal property as an additional feature. The signal properties were then tested for their correlation with SoC as a function of RCn frequency. This allowed identifying trends in the behavior of the signal properties as a function of RCn frequency and C-rate in a condensed fashion and thereby enabled to predict the frequency range, about 50 kHz to 125 kHz, in which the course of the signal properties is best suited for SoC estimation. The final section provided a proof of concept of the ultrasound-based SoC estimation, by applying a support vector regression (SVR) to before thoroughly studied ultrasonic signal properties, as well as current and battery cell voltage. The included case study was split into different parts that assessed the ability of an SVR to estimate the SoC in a variety of scenarios. Seven battery cells, prepared with sensor stacks attached to both faces, were used to generate 14 datasets. First, a comparison of self-tests, where a portion of a dataset is used for training and another for testing, and cross-tests, which use the dataset of one cell for training and the dataset of another for testing, was performed. A root mean square error (RMSE) of 3.9\% to 4.8\% SoC and 3.6\% to 10.0\% SoC was achieved, respectively. In general, it was observed that the SVR is prone to overestimation at low SoCs and underestimation at high SoCs, which was attributed to the pronounced hysteresis and relaxation of the ultrasonic signal properties in this SoC ranges. The fact that higher accuracy is achieved, if the exact cell is known to the model, indicates that a variation between cells exists. This variation between cells can originate from differences in mechanical properties as a result of production variations or from differences in manual sensor placement, mechanical coupling, or resonant behavior of the ultrasonic sensors. To mitigate the effect of the cell-to-cell variations, a test was performed, where the datasets of six out of the seven cells were combined as training data, and the dataset of the seventh cell was used for testing. This reduced the spread of the RMSE from (3.6 - 10.0)\% SoC to (5.9 - 8.5)\% SoC, respectively, once again stating that a databased approach for state estimation becomes more reliable with a large data basis. Utilizing self-tests on seven datasets, the effect of additional features on the state estimation result was tested. The involvement of an additional feature did not necessarily improve the estimation accuracy, but it was shown that a combination of ultrasonic and electrical features is superior to the training with these features alone. To test the ability of the model to estimate the SoC in unknown cycling conditions, a test was performed where the C-rate of the test dataset was not included in the training data. The result suggests that for practical applications it might be sufficient to perform training with the boundary of the use cases in a controlled laboratory environment to handle the estimation in a broad spectrum of use cases. In comparison with literature, this study stands out by utilizing and modifying off-the-shelf piezo elements to equip state-of-the-art lithium-ion battery cells with ultrasonic sensors, employing a range of center frequencies for the waveform, transmitted through the battery cell, instead of a fixed frequency and by allowing the SVR to choose the frequency that yields the best result. The characterization of the ultrasonic signal properties as a function of RCn frequency and SoC and the assignment of characteristic changes in the signal properties to electrochemical processes, such as phase transitions and staging, makes this work unique. By studying a range of use cases, it was demonstrated that an improved SoC estimation accuracy can be achieved with the aid of ultrasonic measurements - thanks to the correlation of the mechanical properties of the battery cells with the SoC.},
  subject      = {Lithium-Ionen-Akkumulator},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Hofmann2022,
  author    = {Hofmann, Michael},
  title     = {Overcoming Obstacles in the Aqueous Processing of Nickel-rich Layered Oxide Cathode Materials},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-27378},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-273787},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {The implementation of a water-based cathode manufacturing process is attractive, given the prospect of improved sustainability of future lithium-ion batteries. However, the sensitivity of many cathode materials to water poses a huge challenge. Within the scope of this work, a correlation between the water sensitivity of cathode materials from the class of layered oxides and their elemental composition was identified. In particular for the cathode material LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (NCA), the processes taking place in aqueous medium were clarified in detail. Based on this knowledge, the surface of NCA particles could be specifically modified, which led to a reduced water sensitivity. As a result, the electrochemical performance of cells with water-based NCA cathodes was significantly improved and a remarkable long-term cycling performance was achieved. The present work contributes to a deeper understanding of the water sensitivity of cathode materials and at the same time presents a promising approach to overcome this obstacle. Consequently, this work advances the successful widespread realization of water-based cathode manufacturing.},
  subject      = {Elektrochemie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Macher2021,
  author    = {Macher, Sven},
  title     = {On the Effects of Moisture on Polymer-Based Electrochromic Devices},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-24240},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-242407},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {The present work builds on a conjugated electrochromic polymer with a highly transmissive and colorless bright state and its application in electrochromic devices. The main body of this work focuses on the investigation of the influence of moisture on electrochromic devices and solutions to overcome possible degradation of these devices due to moisture ingress. Firstly, a series of EDOT derivatives with a terminal double bond in the lateral sidechain to potentially achieve a highly transmissive and fully colorless bright state was investigated. All of the EDOT derivatives were electrochemically polymerized and characterized by means of (in-situ) spectroelectrochemistry. The results highlight the dramatic influence of the terminal double bond on the improved visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state. After detailed evaluation and comparison, the best performing compound, which contains a hexenyl sidechain (PEDOT-EthC6), was scaled-up by changing the deposition technique from an electrochemical to a chemical in-situ polymerization process on a R2R-pilot line in an industrially relevant environment. The R2R-processed PEDOTEthC6 half-cells were characterized in detail and provide enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance and color neutrality in the bright state as well as short response times, improved contrast ratio, coloration efficiency and cycling stability (10 000 cycles).[21] In a second step, the novel PEDOT-EthC6 electrochromic polymer was combined with a Prussian Blue counter electrode and a solid polymer electrolyte to form an all-solid-sate ECDs based on complementary switching electrodes and PET-ITO as flexible substrates. The fabricated ECDs were optically and spectroelectrochemically characterized. Excellent functionality of the S2S-processed flexible ECDs was maintained throughout 10 000 switching cycles under laboratory conditions. The ECDs offer enhanced electrochromic properties in terms of visible light transmittance change and color neutrality in the bright state as well as contrast ratio, coloration efficiency, cycling stability and fast response times. Furthermore, the final device assembly was transferred from a S2S-process to a continuous R2R-lamination process.[238] In a third step, the PEDOT-EthC6/PB-based ECDs were submitted to conscious environmental aging tests. The emphasis of the research presented in this work, was mainly put at the influence of moisture and possible failure mechanisms regarding the PEDOT-EthC6/PB based ECDs. An intense brown coloration of the electrodes was observed while cycling the ECDs in humid atmospheres (90\% rH) as a major degradation phenomenon. The brown coloration and a thereby accompanied loss of conductivity of the PET-ITO substrates was related to significant degradation of the ITO layers, inserted as the conductive layers in the flexible ECDs. A dissolution of the ITO thin films and formation of metallic indium particles on the surface of the ITO layers was observed that harmed the cycling stability enormously. The conductive layers of the aged ECDs were investigated by XRD, UV-Vis, SEM and spectroelectrochemical measurements and validated the supposed irreversible reduction of the ITO layers.[279] In the absence of reasonable alternatives to PET-ITO for flexible (R2R-processed) ECDs, it is also important to investigate measures to avoid the degradation of ECDs. This is primarily associated with the avoidance of appropriate electrode potentials necessary for ITO reduction in humid atmospheres. As an intrinsic action point, the electrode potentials were investigated via electrochemical measurements in a three-electrode setup of an all-solid-state ECD. Extensive knowledge on the electrode potentials allowed the voltage-induced degradation of the ITO in flexible ECDs to be avoided through the implementation of an unbalanced electrode configuration (charge density ratio of working and counter electrode). It was possible to narrow the overall operational voltage window to an extent in which irreversible ITO reduction no longer occurs. The unbalanced electrode configuration lead to an improved cycling stability without harming other characteristics such as response time and light transmittance change and allows ECD operation in the presence of humidity.[279] The avoidance of the mentioned degradation phenomena is further associated with appropriate sealing methods and materials as well as appropriate electrode and device fabrication processes. Since a variety of sealing materials is commercially available, due to the commercial launch of organic photovoltaic (OPV) and light emitting diodes (OLEDs), the focus in the present work was put to water-free electrode fabrication. As an extrinsic action point, a novel preparation method of a nanoscale PEDOT-EthC6 dispersion based on organic solvents is presented here in a final step. The water-free processing method gives access to straightforward printing and coating processes on flexible PET-ITO substrates and thus represents a promising and simplified alternative to the established PEDOT:PSS. The resulting nano-PEDOT-EthC6 thin films exhibit enhanced color neutrality and transmissivity in the bright state and are comparable to the properties of the in-situ polymerized PEDOT-EthC6 thin films.[280]},
  subject      = {Elektrochromie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Niklaus2022,
  author    = {Niklaus, Lukas},
  title     = {Electrochromic systems based on metallopolymers and metal oxides: towards neutral tint and near-infrared transmission modulation},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-25855},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-258554},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {While the field of electrochromic (EC) materials and devices (ECDs) continues to advance in terms of color palette and understanding the underlying mechanism, several scientific and technological challenges need to be addressed by optimizing the materials and understanding the electrochemical interplay of these materials in full cells. The main issue here is to further improve the EC profile for color neutrality and cycling stability in order to commercialize dimmable EC products. The transparent conductive substrates used in this work (FTO and ultra-thin ITO glass) have high visible light transmittance (τv > 85\%) and low sheet resistance (< 25 Ω·sq-1). In addition, the Li+-containing gel electrolyte has sufficient ionic conductivity (2.8·10-4 S·cm-1 at 25 °C), so the investigated ECDs could achieve a fast response (required ionic conductivity is between 10-3 and 10-7 S·cm-1). This work shows that the combination of cathodically-coloring Fe-MEPE with anodically-coloring non-stoichiometric nickel oxide (Ni1-xO) electrodes (prepared by the National Institute of Chemistry in Ljubljana, Slovenia) can be used in neutral-coloring type III ECDs. The Fe-MEPE/Ni1-xO ECD with the underbalanced CE (ECD1-1, 2: 1) and the balanced configuration (ECD1-2, 1: 1) are both nearly neutrally-colored (ECD1-1: a* = -6.7, b* = 8.8; ECD1-2: a* = -9.0, b* = 10.1) in the bright state with a τv of almost 70\%. Due to the overbalancing of the CE (ECD1-3, 1:3), a deviation (a* = -2.8, b* = 19.9) from the neutral coloration occurred here. The balanced as well as the overbalanced ECD configurations show high electrochemical cycling stability (over 1,000 potentiostatic switching cycles). In general, the overbalanced configuration offers the advantage of a smaller operating voltage range (-1 V ↔ 2.5 V to -1 V ↔ 1.5 V), i.e., avoiding possible electrochemical degradation of the EC materials, electrolyte, or conductive layers. By using a Li RE in the full cell, insights into the optimal matching of electrochemical and optical properties between the two electrodes are obtained to achieve more stable ECDs. Thereby, the redox potentials of both EC electrodes (Fe-MEPE and Ni1-xO) can be measured during operation. The incomplete decolorization of ECD1-1 can be explained by the measured electrode potentials (below the required 4 V vs. Li/Li+), excluding side reactions and degradation at both electrodes. The results demonstrate the importance of using balanced and (slightly) overbalanced ECD configurations with complementary-coloring EC electrodes to achieve high cycling stability and fast switching at low operating voltages. Therefore, this three-electrode configuration provides an excellent method for in situ electrochemical characterization of the individual EC electrodes to better understand the redox processes during device operation and to further improve the optical contrast and cycle stability of ECDs. The Fe-MEPE/Ni1-xO combination was tested on flexible ultrathin ITO glass (ECD1-4). Here, by applying a low voltage of -1 V ↔ 2.5 V, the MEPE/Ni1-xO ECDs can be reversibly switched from a colored (L* = 35.6, a* = 19.4, b* = -26.7) to a nearly colorless (L* = 78.5, a* = -14.0, b* = 21.3) state. This is accompanied by a change in τv from 6\% to 53\%. The ECDs exhibit fast response and good cycling stability (5\% loss of optical contrast over 100 switching cycles). To further improve color neutrality and cycling stability, ECDs combining Fe-MEPE and mixed metal oxides as ion storage layers were investigated. Titanium manganese oxide (TMO, Fraunhofer IST) and titanium vanadium oxide (TiVOx, EControl-Glas GmbH \& Co. KG) electrodes are compared for use as optically-passive ion storage layers. TiVOx with a maximum charge density of approx. 27 mC·cm-2 and a coloration efficiency of η = 2 cm·C-1 at 584 nm shows a color change from yellow to light gray at 2 V vs. Ag/AgCl, while the slightly anodically-coloring Ti-rich TMO (10.5 mC·cm-², η584 nm = -4 cm·C-1) switches from light yellow to colorless at -2.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl. These materials show only a slight change in τv value from 85\% to 75\% and from 72\% to 81\%, respectively, thus reaching the requirements for highly transmissive optical-passive ion storage layers. The ECDs with Fe-MEPE in combination with TiVOx (ECD2-1) and TMO-1 (ECD2-2) are blue-purple in the dark state (0 V) and turn colorless by applying a voltage of 1.5 V, changing the τv value from 28\% to 69\% and from 21\% to 57\% in 3 s and 13 s, respectively. The ECDs show fast responses and high cyclability over more than 100 cycles. In the last section, the simplification of cell architecture by using redox mediators shows that different redox mediators (KHCF(III), Fc-PF6, Fc-BF4, and TMTU) can be used in type II ECDs (4 instead of 5 layers) consisting of Fe-MEPE or Ni1-xO thin film electrodes. The combination of KHCF(III) with Fe-MEPE has a low cycling stability due to the electrochemical formation of Prussian blue (PB). This side reaction is undesirable as it decreases the optical contrast. It can be avoided by using Fc+- (ECD3-5/6) or TMTU-based (ECD3-7) redox mediators, which exhibit reversible redox behavior. A high τv value of 72\% is obtained for the use of TMTU. Low concentrations (<0.1 M) of redox mediators decrease the cell voltage for complete switching without affecting the optical properties of the ECDs. The redox couple TMTU/TMFDS2+ (molar ratio of 1:0.1 in 1 M LiClO4/PC as electrolyte) works well in combination with Ni1-xO electrodes (ECD3-10), with a change in τv value from 38\% (colored at 2 V, L* = 67.1, a* = 3.9, b* = 17.2) to 70\% at (decolored at -2 V, L* = 86.6, a* = -0.6, b* = 17.2). This result implies that incorporating redox mediators into the electrolyte is an effective means to simplify the cell assembly and color neutrality can be obtained with one optically active WE and a color-neutral redox mediator. Moreover, the combination of Ni1-xO and the colorless TMTU/TMFDS2+ redox mediator is a potential candidate to obtain neutrally colored ECDs. It is shown that the lab-sized FTO- and ultra-thin ITO-glass-based ECDs are very attractive for energy-efficient EC applications, e.g., in architectural or automotive glazing, aircraft, ships, home appliances and displays. To monitor the EC performance and to prevent diverging electrode potentials during the switching process, the studied three-electrode configuration can help to extend the cycle stability as well as to improve the charge balancing of dimmable applications. The studied ECDs display a route towards neutral tint, e.g., EC active Ni1-xO, optically-inactive mixed metal oxides, and colorless redox mediators. Nevertheless, color neutrality should be further improved to meet the requirements for industrial applications. For future work, a scale-up process from lab-sized (few cm²) to prototype (few m²) ECDs will be necessary.},
  subject      = {Elektrochromie},
  language  = {en}
}