@phdthesis{Schilling2020,
  author    = {Schilling, Klaus Jussi},
  title     = {Liquid chromatographic analysis of weakly- and non-chromophore compounds focusing on Charged Aerosol Detection},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-20211},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-202114},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Liquid chromatography has become the gold standard for modern quality control and purity analytics since its establishment in the 1930s. However, some analytical questions remain very challenging even today. Several molecules and impurities do not possess a suitable chromophore for the application of UV detection or cannot be retained well on regular RP columns. Possible solutions are found in derivatization procedures, but they are time consuming and can be prone to errors. In order to detect non chromophore molecules underivatized, the concept of aerosol based universal detection was established with the introduction of the evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD) in the 1970s and the charged aerosol detector (CAD) followed in 2002. These two challenging fields - polar and non chromophore molecules - are tackled in this thesis. An overview of applications of the CAD in the literature and a comparison to its aerosol based competitors and MS is presented, emphasizing on its high sensitivity and robustness. Parameters and techniques to overcome the drawbacks of CAD, such as the use of gradient compensation or adjusted evaporation temperatures are discussed. A consideration of aspects and drawbacks of data transformation such as the integrated power function value (PFV) in the GMP environment is performed. A method for the fatty acid analysis in polysorbate 80 that was developed on HPLC CAD was transferred to UHPLC CAD. Time and eluent savings of over 75\% and 40\%, respectively, as well as ways to determine the optimal CAD parameters resulted from this investigation. The evaporation temperature was determined as the most crucial setting, which has to be adjusted with care. Optimal signal to noise ratios are found at a compromise between maintaining analyte signal and reducing background noise. The incorporation of semi volatile short chain fatty acids enabled the observation of differences based on volatility of the analyte. E.g. for semi volatiles, an improved linearity by means of adjusting the PFV is achieved at values below 1.0 instead of at elevated PFVs. Using sugars and sugar related antibiotics, a proof-of-concept was given that artificial neural networks can describe correlations between the structure and physicochemical properties of molecules and their response in CAD. Quantitative structure property relationships obtained by design of experiment approaches were able to predict the response of unseen substances and yielded insights on the response generation of the detector, which heavily relies on the formed surface area of the dried particle. Further work can substantiate upon these findings, eventually building a library of diverse eluent compositions, analytes and settings. In order to cope with a chromatographically challenging substances, the application of ion pairing reversed phase chromatography coupled to low wavelength UV detection has been shown as a possible approach for the amino acid L asparagine. A method capable of compendial purity analysis in one single HPLC approach, thus making the utilization of the semi quantitative TLC-ninhydrin analysis obsolete, resulted from this. One cyclic dipeptide impurity (diketoasparagine) that was formerly not assessed, could be identified in several batches and added to the monograph of the Ph.Eur. Studying ibandronate sodium with CAD and ELSD, it was found that randomly occurring spike peaks represent a major flaw of the ELSD when high sample load is present. The research with this non chromophore bisphosphonate drug furthermore shed light on possible drawbacks of mixed mode chromatography methods and ways to overcome these issues. Due to strong adsorption of the analyte onto the column, over ten injections of the highly concentrated test solution were found to be necessary to ensure reproducible peak areas. Preconditioning steps should thus be evaluated for mixed mode approaches during method development and validation. Last, using a ternary mixed mode stationary phase coupled to CAD, a method for the impurity profiling of pamidronate disodium, also applicable to the assessment of phosphate and phosphite in four other bisphosphonate drugs, has been developed. This represents a major advantage over the Ph.Eur. impurity profiling of pamidronate, which requires two different methods, one of which is only a semi quantitative TLC approach.},
  subject      = {HPLC},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Slopianka2020,
  author    = {Slopianka, Markus},
  title     = {Evaluation von Gallens{\"a}uren als Biomarker f{\"u}r Lebertoxizit{\"a}t in der pr{\"a}klinischen Arzneimittelentwicklung},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-20462},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-204627},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Die Detektion Arzneimittel-induzierter Lebersch{\"a}digung (engl. DILI - Drug induced liver injury) stellt eine Herausforderung in der pr{\"a}klinischen Entwicklung von Arzneistoffen dar. Die zur Verf{\"u}gung stehenden konventionellen klinisch-chemischen Marker, wie Alanin-Aminotransferase (ALAT), Aspartat-Aminotransferase (ASAT) und Alkalische Phosphatase (APh), zeigen z. B. bei minimaler bis leichter Leberpathologie keine Ver{\"a}nderungen im Serum an und besitzen somit nur eine geringe Sensitivit{\"a}t f{\"u}r den fr{\"u}hzeitigen Nachweis einer Lebertoxizit{\"a}t. Des Weiteren besitzen klinisch-chemische Serummarker gleichzeitig eine geringe Spezifit{\"a}t und sind somit f{\"u}r die Differenzierung unterschiedlicher Lebertoxizit{\"a}ten nur limitiert geeignet. Neben den beschriebenen diagnostischen Herausforderungen k{\"o}nnen u. a. auch histopathologische Befunde in der Leber, ohne eine Ver{\"a}nderung der klinisch-chemischen Serummarker auftreten und umgekehrt. Die Histopathologie ist als Goldstandard zwar spezifisch, als invasive Technik f{\"u}r eine Verlaufskontrolle in toxikologischen und klinischen Studien aber ungeeignet. In den vergangenen Jahren lieferten Studien zum Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling mittels Fl{\"u}ssigkeitschromatographie-Tandem-Massenspektrometrie (LC-MS/MS) mit Modellsubstanzen, die unterschiedliche Formen einer Lebertoxizit{\"a}t in Ratten induzierten Hinweise, dass individuelle Gallens{\"a}uren ein diagnostisches Potential f{\"u}r die Bewertung einer Lebersch{\"a}digung besitzen. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, dass Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling in die vorgeschriebene Diagnostik der Lebertoxizit{\"a}t in der pr{\"a}klinischen Arzneimittelentwicklung zu implementieren und zu bewerten, ob diese Marker einen wertvollen Beitrag zur Charakterisierung einer Lebertoxizit{\"a}t leisten k{\"o}nnen. Hierzu wurde eine quantitative LC-MS/MS-Methode etabliert und validiert, die es erm{\"o}glicht, 20 verschiedene endogene Gallens{\"a}uren in Ratten zu analysieren. Die quantitative Analytik erm{\"o}glichte eine selektive Bestimmung von prim{\"a}ren, konjugierten und sekund{\"a}ren Gallens{\"a}uren. F{\"u}r die Quantifizierung der individuellen Gallens{\"a}uren wurden 2 MRM-{\"U}berg{\"a}nge bestimmt. Zur Bestimmung des Arbeitsbereiches wurden 20 Referenzstandards von Gallens{\"a}uren verwendet. Eine Kalibrierung mit sieben Kalibrierpunkten in aufsteigender Konzentration wurde f{\"u}r die Bestimmung der endogenen Konzentrationen genutzt. Zur Kompensation des Matrixeffektes wurden 10 isotopenmarkierte interne Standards in die Analytik eingef{\"u}gt. Die Reproduzierbarkeit laufender Messungen wurde durch eingef{\"u}gte Qualit{\"a}tskontrollen (QCs) in drei verschiedenen Konzentrationsbereichen {\"u}berwacht. Es wurde ein Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling mittels LC-MS/MS im Plasma und Lebergewebe von Ratten, die mit verschiedenen Arzneimitteln behandelt wurden, durchgef{\"u}hrt. Histopathologische Zusammenfassung Untersuchungen konnten aufzeigen, dass sich in den Lebern von m{\"a}nnlichen Ratten, die mit dem Arzneimittel Amitriptylin {\"u}ber 14 Tage behandelt wurden, eine makrovesikul{\"a}re Steatose in der Leber manifestierte. Die klassischen Serummarker, wie ALAT, ASAT und Gamma-Glutamyltransferase (γGT), konnten diese Art des Leberschadens nicht detektieren. Dagegen erh{\"o}hten sich die Konzentrationen Glycin-konjugierter Gallens{\"a}uren mit parallel absinkenden Konzentrationen von Taurin-konjugierten Gallens{\"a}uren im Lebergewebe behandelter Ratten. Gleichzeitig ergaben sich signifikant erh{\"o}hte Konzentrationen der prim{\"a}ren Gallens{\"a}uren CA und CDCA im Plasma behandelter Ratten. Andere Gallens{\"a}ure-Profile konnten nach einer Methapyrilen-induzierten Leberzellnekrose mit hepatobili{\"a}rer Sch{\"a}digung beobachtet werden. Nach einer 14-t{\"a}gigen Behandlungsphase mit 80 mg/kg KG Methapyrilen, erh{\"o}hten sich die Konzentrationen von 11 Gallens{\"a}uren im Lebergewebe behandelter Tiere. Gleichzeitig stiegen die Konzentrationen von allen 20 individuellen Gallens{\"a}uren im Plasma behandelter Ratten an. Zus{\"a}tzlich zur quantitativen Analyse von Gallens{\"a}uren mittels LC-MS/MS wurde die Expression von Genen der Gallens{\"a}ure-Biosynthese, des Gallens{\"a}ure-Transports und die Regulation der Gallens{\"a}ure-Hom{\"o}ostase mittels Multiplex-Analyse untersucht. Die erh{\"o}hte Expression von Genen f{\"u}r Efflux-Transporter der Multidrug Resistance-Related Protein (MRP)-Familie deutet auf einen gesteigerten Abtransport von Gallens{\"a}uren ins Blut hin und korrespondierte mit erh{\"o}hten Gallens{\"a}ure-Konzentrationen im Plasma der behandelten Ratten. Des Weiteren wurden die Erkenntnisse der Gallens{\"a}ure-Profile aus den tierexperimentellen Studien als Grundlage genutzt, um Arzneimittel-induzierte Lebertoxizit{\"a}t auf ein zellbiologisches In-vitro-System zu {\"u}bertragen. Es wurden In-vitro-Experimente mit prim{\"a}ren Rattenhepatozyten zwischen zwei Kollagenmatrices (Sandwich-Kultivierung) durchgef{\"u}hrt. Dieses etablierte System wird u. a. f{\"u}r Untersuchungen an hepatobili{\"a}ren Transportsystemen (z. B. Bile Salt Export Pump, BSEP) genutzt. Das Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling in den Zellkultur{\"u}berst{\"a}nden belegt, dass die prim{\"a}ren Hepatozyten konjugierte Gallens{\"a}uren bilden, dass sie bei einer Inkubation mit prim{\"a}ren Gallens{\"a}uren diese verstoffwechseln und dadurch, neben den bereits vorhandenen Gallens{\"a}uren, weitere konjugierte Gallens{\"a}uren produzieren. Eine Exposition mit den Hepatotoxinen Troglitazon und Methapyrilen f{\"u}hrte zu Ver{\"a}nderungen in der Gallens{\"a}ure-Hom{\"o}ostase der Hepatozyten. In den In-vivo-Experimenten wurde eine Methapyrilen-induzierte Nekrose mit hepatobili{\"a}rer Sch{\"a}digung in den behandelten Ratten festgestellt. Bei der Behandlung mit Methapyrilen ergaben sich starke Konzentrationsanstiege der Gallens{\"a}uren im Plasma (u. a. von GCA und TCA), die mit den histopathologischen Befunden korrelierten. Anhand dieser Daten und der Zusammenfassung pharmakokinetischen Eigenschaften von Methapyrilen wurde ein Studiendesign f{\"u}r Rattenhepatozyten in Sandwich-Kulturen entwickelt, um eine initiale Absch{\"a}tzung der Konzentrationsver{\"a}nderungen von Gallens{\"a}uren im In-vitro-Testsystem durchzuf{\"u}hren. Ab Tag 8 der Behandlung kam es zu einem erh{\"o}hten Anstieg der GCA- und TCA-Konzentrationen im Zellkulturmedium. Daher besitzt das In-vitro-Testsystem m{\"o}glicherweise das Potential, tierexperimentelle Studien bei der Bewertung einer Hepatotoxizit{\"a}t zu unterst{\"u}tzen oder sogar zu reduzieren. Insgesamt zeigen diese Ergebnisse aus dieser Arbeit, dass Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling in m{\"a}nnlichen und weiblichen Ratten eine geeignete Methode zur Detektion und Differenzierung von Lebersch{\"a}den ist. Die Technologie ist flexibel einsetzbar und kann bereits etablierte Testverfahren, wie die Bestimmung von Serummarkern in der Klinischen Chemie und die Histopathologie unterst{\"u}tzen. Damit besitzt das Gallens{\"a}ure-Profiling das Potential, die Bewertung beim Nachweis und bei der Charakterisierung einer Lebertoxizit{\"a}t im Rahmen der Evaluierung von pr{\"a}klinischen Arzneimittelkandidaten zu verbessern.},
  subject      = {Hepatotoxizit{\"a}t},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Pawellek2021,
  author    = {Pawellek, Ruben},
  title     = {Charged Aerosol Detector Performance Evaluation and Development of Optimization Strategies for the Analysis of Amino Acids},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-24319},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-243197},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {The charged aerosol detector (CAD) is an aerosol-based detector employed in liquid chromatography which has become established in the field of pharmaceutical analysis due to its outstanding performance characteristics, e.g. the almost uniform response for nonvolatile analytes. Owing to its principle of detection, the response of the CAD depends on the volatility of a compound and is inherently nonlinear. However, the newly implemented instrumental settings evaporation temperature and power function value (PFV) are valuable tools to overcome some of these drawbacks and can even enhance the detector's capabilities when adjusted properly. This thesis aimed to evaluate the impact of the new instrumental settings on the CAD performance. Additionally, the influence of modern separation techniques for small polar compounds on the CAD was assessed and the applicability of hyphenated UV-CAD techniques explored. The optimization strategies derived from the evaluation procedures and the conjunction of the instrumental and chromatographic techniques investigated were utilized for the challenging impurity profiling of amino acids and amino acid-like drugs. The results of the method validation procedures confirmed the broad applicability of the CAD in the pharmaceutical analysis of nonvolatile compounds, supported by satisfactory sensitivity and reproducibility for meeting the regulatory requirements with respect to the ICH guidelines Q2(R1) and Q3A(R2). The limits of applicability include the analysis of semivolatile compounds, and the method transfer between current and legacy CAD models. Further advances in the definition and standardization of allowed ranges for the instrumental settings and the establishment of general optimization procedures in the method development could lead to a more widespread use of the detection technique in compendial methods.},
  subject      = {Instrumentelle Analytik},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Jarzina2022,
  author    = {Jarzina, Sebastian Oskar},
  title     = {Assessment of systemic toxicity in vitro using the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept: nephrotoxicity due to receptor-mediated endocytosis and lysosomal overload and inhibition of mtDNA polymerase-ɣ as case studies},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-26484},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-264842},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {The US National Research Council (NRC) report "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a strategy (Tox21)", published in 2007, calls for a complete paradigm shift in tox-icity testing. A central aspect of the proposed strategy includes the transition from apical end-points in in vivo studies to more mechanistically based in vitro tests. To support and facilitate the transition and paradigm shift in toxicity testing, the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept is widely recognized as a pragmatic tool. As case studies, the AOP concept was ap-plied in this work to develop AOPs for proximal tubule injuries initiated by Receptor-mediated endocytosis and lysosomal overload and Inhibition of mtDNA polymerase-. These AOPs were used as a mechanistic basis for the development of in vitro assays for each key event (KE). To experimentally support the developed in vitro assays, proximal tubule cells from rat (NRK-52E) and human (RPTEC/TERT1) were treated with model compounds. To measure the dis-turbance of lysosomal function in the AOP - Receptor-mediated endocytosis and lysosomal overload, polymyxin antibiotics (polymyxin B, colistin, polymyxin B nonapeptide) were used as model compounds. Altered expression of lysosomal associated membrane protein 1/2 (LAMP-1/2) (KE1) and cathepsin D release from lysosomes (KE2) were determined by im-munofluorescence, while cytotoxicity (KE3) was measured using the CellTiter-Glo® cell via-bility assay. Importantly, significant differences in polymyxin uptake and susceptibility be-tween cell lines were observed, underlining the importance of in vitro biokinetics to determine an appropriate in vitro point of departure (PoD) for risk assessment. Compared to the in vivo situation, distinct expression of relevant transporters such as megalin and cubilin on mRNA and protein level in the used cell lines (RPTEC/TERT1 and NRK-52E) could not be con-firmed, making integration of quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolations (QIVIVE) neces-sary. Integration of QIVIVE by project partners of the University of Utrecht showed an im-provement in the modelled biokinetic data for polymyxin B. To assess the first key event, (KE1) Depletion of mitochondrial DNA, in the AOP - Inhibition of mtDNA polymerase-, a RT-qPCR method was used to determine the mtDNA copy number in cells treated with mod-el compounds (adefovir, cidofovir, tenofovir, adefovir dipivoxil, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate). Mitochondrial toxicity (KE2) was measured by project partners using the high-content imaging technique and MitoTracker® whereas cytotoxicity (KE3) was determined by CellTiter-Glo® cell viability assay. In contrast to the mechanistic hypothesis underlying the AOP - Inhibition of mtDNA polymerase-, treatment with model compounds for 24 h resulted in an increase rather than a decrease in mtDNA copy number (KE1). Only minor effects on mitochondrial toxicity (KE2) and cytotoxicity (KE3) were observed. Treatment of RPT-EC/TERT1 cells for 14 days showed only a slight decrease in mtDNA copy number after treatment with adefovir dipivoxil and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, underscoring some of the limitations of short-term in vitro systems. To obtain a first estimation for risk assessment based on in vitro data, potential points of departure (PoD) for each KE were calculated from the obtained in vitro data. The most common PoDs were calculated such as the effect concentra-tion at which 10 \% or 20_\% effect was measured (EC10, EC20), the highest no observed effect concentration (NOEC), the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC), the benchmark 10 \% (lower / upper) concentrations (BMC10, BMCL10, BMCU10) and a modelled non-toxic con-centration (NtC). These PoDs were then compared with serum and tissue concentrations de-termined from in vivo studies after treatment with therapeutic / supratherapeutic doses of the respective drugs in order to obtain a first estimate of risk based on in vitro data. In addition, AOPs were used to test whether the quantitative key event relationships between key events allow prediction of downstream effects and effects on the adverse outcome (AO) based on measurements of an early key event. Predictions of cytotoxicity from the mathematical rela-tionships showed good concordance with measured cytotoxicity after treatment with colistin and polymyxin b nonapeptide. The work also revealed uncertainties and limitations of the ap-plied strategy, which have a significant impact on the prediction and on a risk assessment based on in vitro results.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Unger2020,
  author    = {Unger, Nina},
  title     = {Stability of Tryptophan in Parenteral Amino Acid Solutions: Identification of Degradation Products and Development of HPLC Analysis Methods},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-19982},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-199825},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {The stability of Trp in pure solutions and in parenteral AA formulations was evaluated with regard to typically used manufacturing processes, storage conditions and primary packaging. Therefore, thorough stability studies on Trp solutions were conducted beforehand. The applied stressing method, i.e. steam sterilization by autoclave, are chemically seen relatively mild but showed to be efficient to induce Trp degradation in the presence of oxygen. Subsequent identification, separation and characterization were challenging due to similar substance properties, numerous stereoisomers and pairs of diastereomers found amongst them. However, the identified o-aminoacetophenone compounds, Kyn and NFK, are associated with photo reactivity and have photo-oxidizing properties. Thus, best possible protection from UV-light, together with strict oxygen expulsion, are the most important criteria to impede Trp degradation after autoclaving. The identification of Trp degradation products was assisted by the compilation of a substance library, which included manifold reported and chemically plausible Trp degradation substances. The substances were classified for priority and their early or late-stage occurrence. The large number of possible substances and stereoisomers was narrowed down with the information retrieved from LC-UV/MS experiments. However, final identification was achieved by the synthesis of proposed substances as references. The following eight substances were characterized as Trp degradation substances: Kyn, NFK and three pairs of diastereomers R,R/R,S DiOia, R,R/R,S Oia and cis/trans PIC. Fig. 33 shows the proposed degradation pathway and demonstrates the close chemical relationship, which may be an explanation for the conversion of some substances into each other during the storage period. The proposed pathway brings together the results of different Trp stability and stressing studies, respectively [89, 94, 97, 98, 103, 133]. To our knowledge, the simultaneous formation of the identified degradation substances has not been reported before and especially not under the stressing conditions applied. The application of a traditional RP-HPLC method was compared to two developed IP-HPLC methods and a RP-HPLC methods using a modified perfluorinated column. Orthogonal analyses methods and especially the combination of UV and MS detection are necessary in order to indicate potentially undetected degradation substances. Main evaluation criteria were the separation performance, analyses time, reproducibility and feasibility. The best results upon assessment of all Trp degradation products, in both; pure Trp solutions and pharmaceutical formulations, were obtained by a traditional RP-HPLC. The optimized method was validated according to ICH guidelines Q2(R1) and meets the criteria of a stability-indicating HPLC-UV method. The validated method has a sufficient separation performance with an adequate selectivity indicating the Trp degradation substances next to each other and next to other AAs in finished pharmaceutical formulations. The detailed knowledge of Trp degradation and the method presented may be transferred practically to the pharmaceutical industry processing Trp-containing products. In general, the findings might contribute to the quality management of such pharmaceutical products during manufacturing and storage. Additionally, the study results provide basic information for the establishment of an impurity consideration following the ICH guidelines Q3B (R2) (impurities in new drug products) for products containing Trp. However, further development of the method applying more sophisticated detectors or more potent HPLC techniques like e.g. UHPLC and the implication of more sensitive (MS) detectors like ToF-MS would be advantageous with regard to economic and practical aspects.},
  subject      = {Stabilit{\"a}t},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Walther2023,
  author    = {Walther, Rasmus},
  title     = {Analysis of weakly chromophore impurities by means of liquid chromatography coupled with charged aerosol detection and mass spectrometry},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32186},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-321862},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {In all the projects presented, it is evident that the selection of suitable separation conditions is only one side of the coin. Equally crucial in the development of methods for the quality assessment of APIs/drugs is the right detection system. The application of CAD as an alternative to UV detection at low wavelength of the two weak chromophore main degradation products of the very polar, zwitterionic API carbocisteine requires the volatility of the mobile phase. Therefore, as a substitute for the non-volatile ion pairing reagent tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (TBAOH), six different volatile alkylamines as well as a RP/SAX mixed-mode column were evaluated. The best selectivity and separation performance comparable to TBAOH was achieved with the RP/SAX column and a mixture of formic acid and trifluoroacetic acid. For the simultaneous optimisation of the evaporation temperature of the CAD as a function of two chromatographic parameters, a central composite design was chosen and the "desirability function" was subsequently applied for modelling. In addition, column bleeding was investigated with a second RP/SAX column (different batch) with the result that the acetonitrile percentage had to be adjusted and preconditioning by injection of concentrated samples is essential. The final mixed-mode method was finally validated with both columns according to the ICH Q2 (R1) guideline. Based on this, an MS-compatible method was developed with little effort using an identical RP/SAX column in UPLC dimension for the untargeted analysis by HRMS of two carbocisteine-containing prototype syrup formulations. For a comprehensive characterisation, HRMS and MS/HRMS data were recorded simultaneously by information dependent acquisition mode. Based on the exact masses, isotope patterns and an in silico plausibility check of the fragment spectra, the prediction of the structures of the unknown impurities was possible. In both syrup samples, which had been stored for nine months at 40 °C and 75 \% r.h., two additional impurities of carbocisteine (i.e. lactam of the sulfoxides and disulphide between cysteine and thioglycolic acid) were identified by comparison with the corresponding prototype placebo samples using general unknown comparative screening. In addition, the formation of Maillard products by binary mixtures with 13C-labelled sugars was revealed in the sucrose-containing formulation. For the promising hyphenation of the UV detector with the CAD for the simultaneous detection of all UV-active impurities of the cholesterol-lowering drug simvastatin and the only weak chromophore dihydrosimvastatin, the Ph. Eur. method had to be adapted. Besides replacing phosphoric acid with trifluoroacetic acid, the gradient also had to be adjusted and a third critical peak pair was observed. Based on validation experiments (according to the ICH Q2 (R1) guideline), the suitability of the CAD for sensitive detection (LOQ = 0.0175 \% m/m) was proven.  To further investigate the robustness of the adapted method and CAD, a Plackett-Burman design was chosen. None of the factors had a statistically significant effect on the S/N of the CAD in the ranges tested. Regarding the three critical peak pairs, on the other hand, the factors to be controlled were statistically established, so that a targeted correction is possible if the system suitability test is not passed. The idea of employing a hyphenated UV-CAD system was finally applied to the structurally closely related lovastatin and its specified impurity dihydrolovastatin. Here, the CAD showed a significantly better S/N compared to the compendial UV detection at 200 nm. The suitability of CAD for the analysis of non-volatile fatty acids in polysorbate 80 (PS80) as favourable alternative to the Ph. Eur. GC method (no time-consuming, error-prone and toxic derivatisation) has already been demonstrated. The aim of this project was therefore to develop a robust method with a focus on the AQbD principles, which can be used for the analysis of other excipients with similar fatty acid composition. After the definition of the analytical target profile and a risk assessment by means of an Ishikawa diagram, a suitable C18 column and the chromatographic framework conditions (formic acid concentration and initial/final gradient conditions) were selected after only few preliminary runs. The remaining critical method parameters were then investigated with the help of DoE and RSM. Using the obtained model equations, Monte Carlo simulations were performed to create the method operable design region as a region of theoretical robustness. After validation according to ICH Q2 (R1), the fatty acid composition of a magnesium stearate batch was successfully analysed as a further application example in addition to PS80. The CAD was able to prove its potential in all the issues investigated in the context of this doctoral thesis. As a cost-effective alternative compared to MS instruments, it thus closes a gap in the quality assessment of APIs or excipients without a suitable chromophore. The easy method transfer to (HR)MS instruments also allows for a unique degree of sample characterisation through untargeted approaches in case of new impurities. For resource- and time-efficient work, the possibilities and limitations of software tools for method development and data evaluation as well as the application of risk-based approaches such as AQbD should also be considered.},
  subject      = {Carbocistein},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Gerner2023,
  author    = {Gerner, Bettina},
  title     = {Improvement of oral antineoplastic therapy by means of pharmacometric approaches \& therapeutic drug monitoring},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32196},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-321966},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Oral antineoplastic drugs are an important component in the treatment of solid tumour diseases, haematological and immunological malignancies. Oral drug administration is associated with positive features (e.g., non-invasive drug administration, outpatient care with a high level of independence for the patient and reduced costs for the health care system). The systemic exposure after oral intake however is prone to high IIV as it strongly depends on gastrointestinal absorption processes, which are per se characterized by high inter-and intraindividual variability. Disease and patient-specific characteristics (e.g., disease state, concomitant diseases, concomitant medication, patient demographics) may additionally contribute to variability in plasma concentrations between individual patients. In addition, many oral antineoplastic drugs show complex PK, which has not yet been fully investigated and elucidated for all substances. All this may increase the risk of suboptimal plasma exposure (either subtherapeutic or toxic), which may ultimately jeopardise the success of therapy, either through a loss of efficacy or through increased, intolerable adverse drug reactions. TDM can be used to detect suboptimal plasma levels and prevent permanent under- or overexposure. It is essential in the treatment of ACC with mitotane, a substance with unfavourable PK and high IIV. In the current work a HPLC-UV method for the TDM of mitotane using VAMS was developed. A low sample volume (20 µl) of capillary blood was used in the developed method, which facilitates dense sampling e.g., at treatment initiation. However, no reference ranges for measurements from capillary blood are established so far and a simple conversion from capillary concentrations to plasma concentrations was not possible. To date the therapeutic range is established only for plasma concentrations and observed capillary concentrations could not be reliable interpretated.The multi-kinase inhibitor cabozantinib is also used for the treatment of ACC. However, not all PK properties, like the characteristic second peak in the cabozantinib concentration-time profile have been fully understood so far. To gain a mechanistic understanding of the compound, a PBPK model was developed and various theories for modelling the second peak were explored, revealing that EHC of the compound is most plausible. Cabozantinib is mainly metabolized via CYP3A4 and susceptible to DDI with e.g., CYP3A4 inducers. The DDI between cabozantinib and rifampin was investigated with the developed PBPK model and revealed a reduced cabozantinib exposure (AUC) by 77\%. Hence, the combination of cabozantinib with strong CYP inducers should be avoided. If this is not possible, co administration should be monitored using TDM. The model was also used to simulate cabozantinib plasma concentrations at different stages of liver injury. This showed a 64\% and 50\% increase in total exposure for mild and moderate liver injury, respectively.Ruxolitinib is used, among others, for patients with acute and chronic GvHD. These patients often also receive posaconazole for invasive fungal prophylaxis leading to CYP3A4 mediated DDI between both substances. Different dosing recommendations from the FDA and EMA on the use of ruxolitinib in combination with posaconazole complicate clinical use. To simulate the effect of this relevant DDI, two separate PBPK models for ruxolitinib and posaconazole were developed and combined. Predicted ruxolitinib exposure was compared to observed plasma concentrations obtained in GvHD patients. The model simulations showed that the observed ruxolitinib concentrations in these patients were generally higher than the simulated concentrations in healthy individuals, with standard dosing present in both scenarios. According to the developed model, EMA recommended RUX dose reduction seems to be plausible as due to the complexity of the disease and intake of extensive co-medication, RUX plasma concentration can be higher than expected.},
  subject      = {Arzneimittel{\"u}berwachung},
  language  = {en}
}