@phdthesis{Hoehn2017,
  author    = {H{\"o}hn, Stefan},
  title     = {Geologischer Rahmen und Genese der Kupferberger Cu-Zn-Lagerst{\"a}tte},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-155759},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {Bei der Cu-Zn-Lagerst{\"a}tte bei Kupferberg, 10 km nord{\"o}stlich von Kulmbach, handelt es sich um Bayerns gr{\"o}ßten, historischen Buntmetallabbau. Der etwa 4 km lange Zug einzelner, stratiformer Erzlinsen befindet sich im Nordwesten in der parautochthonen Randschiefer Formation und im S{\"u}dosten in der Prasinit-Phyllit Formation, die ein Teil der allochthonen M{\"u}nchberger Gneismasse ist. Bisherige Versuche, die Genese der Lagerst{\"a}tte zu erkl{\"a}ren, scheiterten daran, den versatzlosen {\"U}bertritt einer stratiformen Lagerst{\"a}tte {\"u}ber eine regional bedeutende St{\"o}rungszone zu erkl{\"a}ren. U-Pb Zirkondatierungen an mafischen und felsischen Vulkaniten im Umfeld der Lagerst{\"a}tte best{\"a}tigten das Bild eines kambrisch-ordovizischen Extensionsvulkanismus. Das Fehlen von N-MORB-{\"a}hnlichen geochemischen Signaturen in den untersuchten Proben der gesamten s{\"u}dwestlichen, saxothuringischen Vogtland Synklinale deutet auf eine gescheiterte Riftbildung am Nordrand Gondwanas hin und setzt somit den geotektonischen Rahmen f{\"u}r die Ablagerung der Wirtsformation(en). Die Cu-Zn-Vererzung selbst liegt hier im Wesentlichen als Vergesellschaftung von Pyrit, Chalkopyrit, Sphalerit, Quarz und Kalzit in kohlenstoffreichem Tonschiefer vor. Die verschiedenen Untersuchungen an den beiden Erzlinsen zeigten, dass in der „St. Veits" Erzlinse eine syngenetische Pyrit-Anreicherung mit charakteristisch niedrigen Co/Ni-Verh{\"a}ltnissen ({\o} = 3,7) vorliegt. Dar{\"u}ber hinaus konnte dort noch mindestens eine hydrothermale Pyrit-Generation (Co/Ni-Verh{\"a}ltnis ca. 35) nachgewiesen werden, die nur dort auftritt, wo auch Chalkopyrit angereichert ist und deutlich h{\"o}here Co/Ni-Verh{\"a}ltnisse aufweist ({\o} = 35). Die Ermittlung der Cu-Isotopenverh{\"a}ltnisse des Chalkopyrits zeigte ein δ65Cu-Spektrum von -0,26 bis 0,36  per mille, was stark f{\"u}r eine hydrothermale Anreicherung unter hohen (>250 °C) Temperaturbedingungen spricht. W{\"a}hrend sich die Erzlinsen in der Randschiefer und Prasinit-Phyllit Formation hinsichtlich ihrer Sulfid-Mineralogie so {\"a}hnlich sind, dass sie bisher immer als eine Lagerst{\"a}tte angesprochen wurden, erbrachte ein statistischer Vergleich der beiden δ34S-Datens{\"a}tze, dass es sich hier nur mit einer Wahrscheinlichkeit von ca. 2 \% um Stichproben der gleichen Grundgesamtheit handelt. Entsprechend liegen innerhalb der Kupferberger Lagerst{\"a}tte zwei unterschiedliche Schichten, reich an syngenetischem Pyrit, vor. Die Tatsache, dass das δ34S-Spektrum potentieller Schwefelquellen f{\"u}r die hydrothermale Chalkopyrit-Mineralisation theoretisch sehr groß, de facto aber mit dem δ34S-Spektrum der syngenetischen Sulfidanreicherung fast identisch ist (δ34S = 3,2 ± 0,6  per mille bzw. δ34S = 3,1 ± 0,9  per mille), spricht f{\"u}r eine schichtinterne Sulfidmobilisierung. Aus den hier erbrachten Ergebnissen wird ein genetisches Modell f{\"u}r die Kupferberger Lagerst{\"a}tte geschlussfolgert, in dem jeweils eine der zahlreichen sediment{\"a}ren, Pyrit-reichen Schichten aus der Randschiefer und der Prasinit-Phyllit Formation bei der {\"U}berschiebung der M{\"u}nchberger Gneismasse tektonisch in Kontakt gebracht wurden. Im Zuge eben dieser Raumnahme der allochthonen Masse wurden Teile der Randschiefer Formation unter Gr{\"u}nschiefer-fazielle Bedingungen gebracht. Dabei kam es sowohl zur Freisetzung von Buntmetallen, die vorher zum Großteil in Pyrit gebunden waren, als auch zur Entw{\"a}sserung der umliegenden Tonschiefer. Durch die {\"u}berlagernden, impermeablen metamorphen Decken wurde das entstandene metallreiche Fluid an der {\"U}berschiebungsbahn kanalisiert. Durch den Druckabfall in der Spr{\"o}de-Duktil-{\"U}bergangszone kam es zum Sieden des aufsteigenden Fluids, was zur Ausf{\"a}llung der Sulfide f{\"u}hrte. Die Bildung bedeutender Erzlinsen erfolgte vor allem dort, wo das {\"u}bers{\"a}ttigte Fluid auf Pyrit-reiche Schwarzschiefer bzw. Phyllite traf. Da die Abbauw{\"u}rdigkeit dieser Erzlinsen im Wesentlichen auf die epigenetische {\"U}berpr{\"a}gung im Zuge der Decken{\"u}berschiebung zur{\"u}ckzuf{\"u}hren ist, handelt es sich bei der Kupferberger Cu-Zn-Vererzung um eines der seltenen Beispiele f{\"u}r eine tats{\"a}chliche metamorphogene bzw. syntektonische Buntmetalllagerst{\"a}tte.},
  subject      = {Lagerst{\"a}tte},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Nwaila2017,
  author    = {Nwaila, Tsundukani Glen},
  title     = {Geochemistry of Palaeoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic Kaapvaal Craton marine shales: Implications for sediment provenance and siderophile elements endowment},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-155326},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2017},
  abstract  = {The Kaapvaal Craton hosts a number of large gold deposits (e.g. Witwatersrand Supergroup) which mining companies have exploited at certain stratigraphic positions. It also hosts the largest platinum group element (PGE) deposits (e.g. Bushveld Igneous Complex) which mining companies have exploited in different mineralised layered magmatic zones. In spite of the extensive exploration history in the Kaapvaal Craton, the origin of the Witwatersrand gold deposits and Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits has remained one of the most debated topics in economic geology. The goal of this study was to identify the geochemical characteristics of marine shales in the Barberton, Witwatersrand, and Transvaal supergroups in South Africa in order to make inferences on their sediment provenance and siderophile element endowments. Understanding why some of the Archaean and Proterozoic hinterlands are heavily mineralised, compared to others with similar geological characteristics, will aid in the development of more efficient exploration models. Fresh, unmineralised marine shales from the Barberton (Fig Tree and Moodies groups), Witwatersrand (West Rand and Central Rand groups), and Transvaal (Black Reef Formation and Pretoria Group) supergroups were sampled from drill core and underground mining exposures. Analytical methods, such as X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) were applied to comprehensively characterise the shales. All of the Au and PGE assays examined the newly collected shale samples. The Barberton Supergroup shales consist mainly of quartz, illite, chlorite, and albite, with diverse heavy minerals, including sulfides and oxides, representing the minor constituents. The regionally persistent Witwatersrand Supergroup shales consist mainly of quartz, muscovite, and chlorite, and also contain minor constituents of sulfides and oxides. The Transvaal Supergroup shales comprise quartz, chlorite, and carbonaceous material. Major, trace (including rare-earth element) concentrations were determined for shales from the above supergroups to constrain their source and post-depositional evolution. Chemical variations were observed in all the studied marine shales. Results obtained from this study revealed that post-depositional modification of shale chemistry was significant only near contacts with over- and underlying coarser-grained siliciclastic rocks and along cross-cutting faults, veins, and dykes. Away from such zones, the shale composition remained largely unaltered and can be used to draw inferences concerning sediment provenance and palaeoweathering in the source region and/or on intrabasinal erosion surfaces. Evaluation of weathering profiles through sections of the studied supergroups revealed that the shales therein are characterised by high chemical index of alteration (CIA), chemical index of weathering (CIW), and index of compositional variability (ICV), suggesting that the source area was lithologically complex and subject to intense chemical weathering. A progressive change in the chemical composition was identified, from a dominant ultramafic-mafic source for the Fig Tree Group to a progressively felsic-plutonic provenance for the Moodies Group. The West Rand Group of the Witwatersrand Supergroup shows a dominance of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite and calcalkaline granite sources. Compositional profiles through the only major marine shale unit within the Central Rand Group indicate the progressive unroofing of a granitic source in an otherwise greenstone-dominated hinterland during the course of sedimentation. No plausible likely tectonic setting was obtained through geochemical modelling. However, the combination of the systematic shale chemistry, geochronology, and sedimentology in the Witwatersrand Supergroup supports the hypothesised passive margin setting for the >2.98 to 2.91 Ga West Rand Group, and an active continental margin source for the overlying >2.90 to 2.78 Ga Central Rand Group, along with a foreland basin setting for the latter. Ultra-low detection limit analyses of gold and PGE concentrations revealed a variable degree of gold accumulation within pristine unmineralised shales. All the studied shales contain elevated gold and PGE contents relative to the upper continental crust, with marine shales from the Central Rand Group showing the highest Au (±9.85 ppb) enrichment. Based on this variation in the provenance of contemporaneous sediments in different parts of the Kaapvaal Craton, one can infer that the siderophile elements were sourced from a fertile hinterland, but concentrated into the marine shales by a combination of different processes. It is proposed that accumulation of siderophile elements in the studied marine shales was mainly controlled by mechanical coagulation and aggregation. These processes involved suspended sediments, fine gold particles, and other trace elements being trapped in marine environments. Mechanical coagulation and aggregation resulted in gold enrichments by 2-3 orders of magnitude, whereas some of the gold in these marine shales can be reconciled by seawater adsorption into sedimentary pyrite. For the source of gold and PGEs in the studied marine shales in the Kaapvaal Craton, a genetic model is proposed that involves the following: (1) A highly siderophile elements enriched upper mantle domain, herein referred to as "geochemically anomalous mantle domain", from which the Kaapvaal crust was sourced. This mantle domain enriched in highly siderophile elements was formed either by inhomogeneous mixing with cosmic material that was added during intense meteorite bombardment of the Hadaean to Palaeoarchaean Earth or by plume-like ascent of relics from the core-mantle boundary. In both cases, elevated siderophile elements concentrations would be expected. The geochemically anomalous mantle domain is likely the ultimate source of the Witwatersrand modified palaeoplacer gold deposits and was tapped again ca. 2.054 Ga during the emplacement of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. Therefore, I propose that there is a genetic link (i.e. common geochemically anomalous mantle source) between the Witwatersrand gold deposits and the younger Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits. (2) Scavenging of crustal gold by various surface processes such as trapping of gold from Archaean/Palaeoproterozoic river water on the surface of local photosynthesizing cyanobacterial or microbial mats, and reworking of these mats into erosion channels during flooding events. The above two models complement each other, with model (1) providing a common geological source for the Witwatersrand gold and Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits, and model (2) explaining the processes responsible for Witwatersrand-type gold pre-concentration processes. In sequences such as the Transvaal Supergroup, a less fertile hinterland and/or less reworking of older sediments led to a correspondingly lower gold endowment. These findings indicate temporal distribution of siderophile elements in the upper crust (e.g. marine shales). The overall implications of these findings are that background concentrations of gold and PGEs can be used to target potential exploration areas in other cratons of similar age. This increases the likelihood of finding other Witwatersrand-type gold or Bushveld Igneous Complex-type PGE deposits in other cratons.},
  subject      = {Gold},
  language  = {en}
}