@phdthesis{Ullrich2014,
  author    = {Ullrich, Melanie},
  title     = {Identification of SPRED2 as a Novel Regulator of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity and of Body Homeostasis},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-107355},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {SPRED proteins are inhibitors of the Ras/ERK/MAPK signaling pathway, an evolutionary highly conserved and very widespread signaling cascade regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth. To elucidate physiological consequences of SPRED2 deficiency, SPRED2 KO mice were generated by a gene trap approach. An initial phenotypical characterization of KO mice aged up to five months identified SPRED2 as a regulator of chondrocyte differentiation and bone growth. Here, the loss of SPRED2 leads to an augmented FGFR-dependent ERK activity, which in turn causes hypochondroplasia-like dwarfism. However, long term observations of older KO mice revealed a generally bad state of health and manifold further symptoms, including excessive grooming associated with severe self-inflicted wounds, an abnormally high water uptake, clear morphological signs of kidney deterioration, and a reduced survival due to sudden death. Based on these observations, the aim of this study was to discover an elicitor of this complex and versatile phenotype. The observed kidney degeneration in our SPRED2 KO mice was ascribed to hydronephrosis characterized by severe kidney atrophy and apoptosis of renal tubular cells. Kidney damage prompted us to analyze drinking behavior and routine serum parameters. Despite polydipsia, which was characterized by a nearly doubled daily water uptake, the significantly elevated Na+ and Cl- levels and the resulting serum hyperosmolality could not be compensated in SPRED2 KOs. Since salt and water balance is primarily under hormonal control of aldosterone and AVP, we analyzed both hormone levels. While serum AVP was similar in WTs and KOs, even after experimental water deprivation and an extreme loss of body fluid, serum aldosterone was doubled in SPRED2 KO mice. Systematic investigation of contributing upstream hormone axes demonstrated that hyperaldosteronism developed independently of an overactivated Renin-Angiotensin system as indicated by halved serum Ang II levels in KO mice. However, aldosterone synthase expression in the adrenal gland was substantially augmented. Serum corticosterone, which is like aldosterone released from the adrenal cortex, was more than doubled in SPRED2 KOs, too. Similar to corticosterone, the production of aldosterone is at least in part under control of pituitary ACTH, which is further regulated by upstream hypothalamic CRH release. In fact, stress hormone secretion from this complete hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis was upregulated because serum ACTH, the mid acting pituitary hormone, and hypothalamic CRH, the upstream hormonal inductor of HPA axis activity, were also elevated by 30\% in SPRED2 KO mice. This was accompanied by an upregulated ERK activity in paraventricular nucleus-containing hypothalamic brain regions and by augmented hypothalamic CRH mRNA levels in our SPRED2 KO mice. In vitro studies using the hypothalamic cell line mHypoE-44 further demonstrated that both SPRED1 and SPRED2 were able to downregulate CRH promoter activity, CRH secretion, and Ets factor-dependent CRH transcription. This was in line with the presence of various Ets factor binding sites in the CRH promoter region, especially for Ets1. Thus, this study shows for the first time that SPRED2-dependent inhibition of Ras/ERK/MAPK signaling by suppression of ERK activity leads to a downregulation of Ets1 factor-dependent transcription, which further results in inhibition of CRH promoter activity, CRH transcription, and CRH release from the hypothalamus. The consecutive hyperactivity of the complete HPA axis in our SPRED2 KO mice reflects an elevated endogenous stress response becoming manifest by excessive grooming behavior and self-inflicted skin lesions on the one hand; on the other hand, in combination with elevated aldosterone synthase expression, this upregulated HPA hormone release explains hyperaldosteronism and the associated salt and water imbalances. Both hyperaldosteronism and polydipsia very likely contribute further to the observed kidney damage. Taken together, this study initially demonstrates that SPRED2 is essential for the appropriate regulation of HPA axis activity and of body homeostasis. To further enlighten and compare consequences of SPRED2 deficiency in mice and particularly in humans, two follow-up studies investigating SPRED2 function especially in heart and brain, and a genetic screen to identify human SPRED2 loss-of-function mutations are already in progress.},
  subject      = {Renin-Angiotensin-System},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Mandel2014,
  author    = {Mandel, Philipp},
  title     = {Entstehung von oxidativen Stressmarkern in DNA und RNA nach der Behandlung mit den Hormonen Angiotensin II und Aldosteron in vitro und in vivo : Vergleich von drei Analysemethoden zum Nachweis von 8-Oxo-2'-desoxyguanosin in LLC-PK1-Zellen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-111190},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {The detection of oxidative stress markers has gained increasing importancy in the early investigation of diseases like diabetes, cancer or hypertension. 8 oxo 2' deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) is the main marker, which is used for the intracellular detection of oxidative stress levels. However, the oxidative stress markers 8 oxoguanine (8-oxoGua), a product of the DNA base excision repair and 8 oxoguanosine (8-oxoGuo), a marker for oxidative damaged RNA have received less attention up to now. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) plays an important role in the regulation processes of the blood pressure system. During hypertension angiotensin II (Ang II) and aldosterone (Aldo) are released in high concentrations over a longer period leading to non-physiological effects of the RAAS hormones. Subsequently, an increase of the intracellular oxidative stress level in kidney cells can be measured. The aim of this thesis is the in vitro and in vivo detection of the oxidative damage in DNA and RNA by measuring oxidative stress markers, especially 8-oxodG which is triggered by Ang II and Aldo. In vitro experiments were carried out in LLC-PK1, a cell line originated from porcine kidney cells. It could been shown that Ang II and Aldo led to a dose-dependent increase of DNA damage in the cells. A time-dependent increase was detected for the first 30 minutes of the treatment. For the rest of the experimental set up (4 h) the level of detected DNA damage remained constant. The FPG comet assay and the immunocytochemical staining showed a significant increase of 8-oxodG in the cells, whereas the HPLC-MS/MS measurement only detected a small increase of 8-oxodG in the DNA. The FPG enzyme, which recognises also other oxidized purines besides 8-oxodG, which led to an overestimation of 8-oxodG in the comet assay. Also, the 8 oxodG antibody, which was used in the immunocytochemical analysis, detected higher amounts of 8-oxodG most likely due to its side reactions with other oxidized DNA structures. One of the main advantages of the last mentioned methods is the direct measurement in damaged cells, whereas the HPLC-MS/MS requires an isolation of the DNA. During this isolation process the oxidative stress markers can be oxidized and the detection can become imprecise. The main purpose of the in vivo experiments was the detection of the oxidative stress marker 8-oxoGua, 8-oxodG and 8-oxoGuo in the urine of test animals. The treatment of C57BL/6 mice and Sprague Dawley (SD) rats with the RAAS hormones led to an increase of the blood pressure, higher DNA damage due to oxidative stress as well as an increased excretion rate of oxidative stress markers. The inhibition of the angiotensin II type 1- or mineralocorticoid receptor and a mutation of the AT1a gene could show, that the DNA damage is independent from the hypertension. In addition, it was shown that the NOX4 is not alone responsible for the oxidative stress. Other NADPH oxidases must contribute to the induction of oxidative stress inside the cell. Moreover, the activation of the Nrf2 pathway has an influence on the effect of Aldo in SD rats. The excretion rate of the oxidative stress markers in the 20 h urine of the treated animals showed how the equilibrium between the DNA repair and the oxidative stress level was changing over time. The measurement of 8-oxoGuo became more and more popular, because up to the fact that 80 \% of the DNA is translated into RNA. Overall, the detection of 8-oxodG and 8-oxoGuo is feasible for monitoring the disease or the healing process, because the measurement is non-invasive. The detection of 8-oxodG and 8-oxoGuo in nucleic acids is a first step into the field of basic research methods, because it reveals a snapshot of the nucleic acid damage in the cell at a specific time point. Usually, there will be an overestimation of the oxidative stress marker resulting from the analytical method. Although, it is possible to detect an underestimation of oxidative stress markers in tissue samples if not all cell types are damaged equally. Therefore, a primary goal should be the detection of a stable oxidation product of guanine to insure a reliable detection strategy and for a better understanding of the equilibrium of DNA oxidation and repair.},
  subject      = {Oxidativer Stress},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Augustin2018,
  author    = {Augustin, Anne Marie},
  title     = {Auswirkung der SPRED2-Defizienz auf die kardiale Funktion und Beeinflussung durch die Behandlung mit dem Aldosteronantagonisten Eplerenon},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-166029},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2018},
  abstract  = {SPRED2 ist ein Inhibitor des Ras/ERK-MAPK-Signalwegs. Um die Folgen einer SPRED2-Defizienz zu erforschen, wurden im Rahmen vorheriger von Ullrich et al. durchgef{\"u}hrter Untersuchungen mittels Gene-Trap-Methode bereits mannigfaltige Auff{\"a}lligkeiten im Ph{\"a}notyp der SPRED2-M{\"a}use festgestellt. So zeigten die Tiere einen Hypochondroplasie-{\"a}hnlichen Zwergenwuchs, Verhaltensauff{\"a}lligkeiten, einen krankhaft gesteigerten Wasserkonsum und nicht zuletzt eine deutlich reduzierte Lebenserwartung im Vergleich mit den WT-Tieren. Des Weiteren fielen erh{\"o}hte Aldosteronspiegel auf, die bei n{\"a}heren Untersuchungen nicht einer erh{\"o}hten Aktivit{\"a}t des RAAS geschuldet zu sein schienen. Vielmehr zeigte sich eine deutlich erh{\"o}hte Aldosteron-Synthase-Expression in der Nebennierenrinde. Erste Hinweise darauf, dass die SPRED2-Defizienz auch Auswirkungen auf den kardiologischen Ph{\"a}notyp haben k{\"o}nnte, ergaben sich bereits bei initialen Untersuchungen von Ullrich et al. So konnte bei den SPRED2-KO-Tieren neben h{\"a}modynamischer Auff{\"a}lligkeiten eine gesteigerte Herz-K{\"o}rpergewicht-Ratio festgestellt werden. Die im Rahmen dieses Folgeprojekts durchgef{\"u}hrten Untersuchungen sollten die Frage kl{\"a}ren, ob die Defizienz des SPRED2-Gens Auswirkungen auf die Herzleistung hat und hier{\"u}ber die verk{\"u}rzte Lebenserwartung der KO-Tiere verschulden k{\"o}nnte. Hierf{\"u}r wurden zun{\"a}chst Untersuchungen der elektrischen kardialen Aktivit{\"a}t mittels EKG und Elektrophysiologischer Untersuchung durchgef{\"u}hrt. Die Ermittlung von Herzrhythmusst{\"o}rung und die Quantifizierung derselben spielte hierbei eine besondere Rolle. Des Weiteren sollte mit der Durchf{\"u}hrung von PSR-F{\"a}rbungen zur Bestimmung des kardialen Kollagengehaltes histologischen Fragestellungen Rechnung getragen werden. Aufgrund des bereits aus den vorherigen Studien bekannten Hyperaldosteronismus der KO-Tiere stellte sich dar{\"u}ber hinaus die Frage, ob die im Rahmen der Studie feststellbaren kardiologischen Auff{\"a}lligkeiten als Konsequenz der gesteigerten Aldosteronwerte, oder aber als direkte Folge des Genotyps gewertet werden m{\"u}ssen. Aus diesem Grund wurden alle oben genannten Untersuchungen mit Tieren, welche einer Behandlung mit dem Aldosteronantagonisten Eplerenon zugef{\"u}hrt worden waren, wiederholt. Bei der Auswertung der basalen Ruhe- und Stress-EKGs zeigten sich einige Parameter bei den KO-Tieren pathologisch ver{\"a}ndert. So war das QRS-Intervall, als Korrelat zur intraventrikul{\"a}ren {\"U}berleitungszeit, bei den KO-M{\"a}usen verl{\"a}ngert, im Stress-EKG waren dar{\"u}ber hinaus sowohl die Dauer der P-Welle als auch des PQ-Intervalls erh{\"o}ht. Durch die Behandlung mit Aldosteron waren diese Unterschiede zwischen WT- und KO-Gruppe teilweise nicht mehr feststellbar. Das die atrioventrikul{\"a}re {\"U}berleitungszeit abbildende PQ-Intervall war sowohl im Vergleich mit dem behandelten WT, als auch mit dem unbehandelten WT nicht mehr signifikant erh{\"o}ht. Auch die L{\"a}nge des QRS-Komplexes n{\"a}herte sich unter Eplerenon-Behandlung dem der unbehandelten WT-Tiere an und sank bei der Stress-EKG-Auswertung sogar unterhalb des Signifkanzniveaus. Bei der EKG-Analyse in Bezug auf Arrhythmien ergab sich bei Gegen{\"u}berstellung der basalen WT- und KO-Gruppe eine deutlich gesteigerte Vulnerabilit{\"a}t f{\"u}r Herzrhythmusst{\"o}rungen bei den KO-Tieren. Durch die Behandlung mit Eplerenon konnte hierbei ein deutlicher Erfolg erzielt werden mit signifikanter Reduktion der Arrhythmieereignisse. Die elektrophysiologische Untersuchung ergab neben unauff{\"a}lligen Parametern der Funktion des Sinusknotens und der AV-{\"U}berleitung ebenfalls Hinweise f{\"u}r eine gesteigerte Empfindlichkeit f{\"u}r Arrhythmien. Die durch EPU induzierten Arrhythmien zeigten sich durch Eplerenon-Behandlung gleichermaßen r{\"u}ckg{\"a}ngig. Mittels Kollagenf{\"a}rbung konnte der initiale Verdacht, dass die SPRED2-KO-Tiere zu einer vermehrten kardialen Fibrosierung neigen, best{\"a}tigt werden. Dabei zeigte sich durch die Behandlung mit Eplerenon eine deutliche Beeinflussung und Reduktion des kardialen Kollagengehaltes. Insgesamt l{\"a}sst sich schlussfolgern, dass die mannigfaltigen ph{\"a}notypischen Effekte, die die SPRED2-Defizienz bedingt, nur teilweise dem Hyperaldosteronismus der Tiere geschuldet sind und durch therapeutische Einflussnahme auf diesen auch nur partiell kompensiert werden k{\"o}nnen.},
  subject      = {Spred-Proteine},
  language  = {de}
}