TY - JOUR A1 - Heckmann, Manfred A1 - Pauli, Martin T1 - Visualizing presynaptic active zones and synaptic vesicles JF - Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience N2 - The presynaptic active zone (AZ) of chemical synapses is a highly dynamic compartment where synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release take place. During evolution the AZ was optimized for speed, accuracy, and reliability of chemical synaptic transmission in combination with miniaturization and plasticity. Single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) offers nanometer spatial resolution as well as information about copy number, localization, and orientation of proteins of interest in AZs. This type of imaging allows quantifications of activity dependent AZ reorganizations, e.g., in the context of presynaptic homeostatic potentiation. In combination with high-pressure freezing and optogenetic or electrical stimulation AZs can be imaged with millisecond temporal resolution during synaptic activity. Therefore SMLM allows the determination of key parameters in the complex spatial environment of AZs, necessary for next generation simulations of chemical synapses with realistic protein arrangements. KW - active zone KW - depression KW - facilitation KW - plasticity KW - potentiation KW - synapse Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-274687 SN - 1663-3563 VL - 14 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Capetian, Philipp A1 - Müller, Lorenz A1 - Volkmann, Jens A1 - Heckmann, Manfred A1 - Ergün, Süleyman A1 - Wagner, Nicole T1 - Visualizing the synaptic and cellular ultrastructure in neurons differentiated from human induced neural stem cells - an optimized protocol JF - International Journal of Molecular Sciences N2 - The size of the synaptic subcomponents falls below the limits of visible light microscopy. Despite new developments in advanced microscopy techniques, the resolution of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) remains unsurpassed. The requirements of tissue preservation are very high, and human post mortem material often does not offer adequate quality. However, new reprogramming techniques that generate human neurons in vitro provide samples that can easily fulfill these requirements. The objective of this study was to identify the culture technique with the best ultrastructural preservation in combination with the best embedding and contrasting technique for visualizing neuronal elements. Two induced neural stem cell lines derived from healthy control subjects underwent differentiation either adherent on glass coverslips, embedded in a droplet of highly concentrated Matrigel, or as a compact neurosphere. Afterward, they were fixed using a combination of glutaraldehyde (GA) and paraformaldehyde (PFA) followed by three approaches (standard stain, Ruthenium red stain, high contrast en-bloc stain) using different combinations of membrane enhancing and contrasting steps before ultrathin sectioning and imaging by TEM. The compact free-floating neurospheres exhibited the best ultrastructural preservation. High-contrast en-bloc stain offered particularly sharp staining of membrane structures and the highest quality visualization of neuronal structures. In conclusion, compact neurospheres growing under free-floating conditions in combination with a high contrast en-bloc staining protocol, offer the optimal preservation and contrast with a particular focus on visualizing membrane structures as required for analyzing synaptic structures. KW - transmission electron microscopy KW - human neurons KW - induced neural stem cells KW - synapse KW - synaptic vesicles KW - high contrast Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-236053 SN - 1422-0067 VL - 21 IS - 5 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Beck, Katherina A1 - Ehmann, Nadine A1 - Andlauer, Till F. M. A1 - Ljaschenko, Dmitrij A1 - Strecker, Katrin A1 - Fischer, Matthias A1 - Kittel, Robert J. A1 - Raabe, Thomas T1 - Loss of the Coffin-Lowry syndrome-associated gene RSK2 alters ERK activity, synaptic function and axonal transport in Drosophila motoneurons JF - Disease Models & Mechanisms N2 - Plastic changes in synaptic properties are considered as fundamental for adaptive behaviors. Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated signaling has been implicated in regulation of synaptic plasticity. Ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) acts as a regulator and downstream effector of ERK. In the brain, RSK2 is predominantly expressed in regions required for learning and memory. Loss-of-function mutations in human RSK2 cause Coffin-Lowry syndrome, which is characterized by severe mental retardation and low IQ scores in affected males. Knockout of RSK2 in mice or the RSK ortholog in Drosophila results in a variety of learning and memory defects. However, overall brain structure in these animals is not affected, leaving open the question of the pathophysiological consequences. Using the fly neuromuscular system as a model for excitatory glutamatergic synapses, we show that removal of RSK function causes distinct defects in motoneurons and at the neuromuscular junction. Based on histochemical and electrophysiological analyses, we conclude that RSK is required for normal synaptic morphology and function. Furthermore, loss of RSK function interferes with ERK signaling at different levels. Elevated ERK activity was evident in the somata of motoneurons, whereas decreased ERK activity was observed in axons and the presynapse. In addition, we uncovered a novel function of RSK in anterograde axonal transport. Our results emphasize the importance of fine-tuning ERK activity in neuronal processes underlying higher brain functions. In this context, RSK acts as a modulator of ERK signaling. KW - mrsk2 KO mouse KW - S6KII RSK KW - transmission KW - neuromuscular junction KW - synapse KW - MAPK signaling KW - axonal transport KW - motoneuron KW - RSK KW - Drosophila KW - mechanisms KW - plasticity KW - protein kinase KW - signal transduction pathway KW - mitochondrial transport KW - glutamate receptor Y1 - 2015 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-145185 VL - 8 ER - TY - THES A1 - Ljaschenko, Dmitrij T1 - Hebbian plasticity at neuromuscular synapses of Drosophila T1 - Hebbsche Plastizität an den neuromuskulären Synapsen in Drosophila melanogaster N2 - Synaptic plasticity determines the development of functional neural circuits. It is widely accepted as the mechanism behind learning and memory. Among different forms of synaptic plasticity, Hebbian plasticity describes an activity-induced change in synaptic strength, caused by correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity. Additionally, Hebbian plasticity is characterised by input specificity, which means it takes place only at synapses, which participate in activity. Because of its correlative nature, Hebbian plasticity suggests itself as a mechanism behind associative learning. Although it is commonly assumed that synaptic plasticity is closely linked to synaptic activity during development, the mechanistic understanding of this coupling is far from complete. In the present study channelrhodopsin-2 was used to evoke activity in vivo, at the glutamatergic Drosophila neuromuscular junction. Remarkably, correlated pre- and postsynaptic stimulation led to increased incorporation of GluR-IIA-type glutamate receptors into postsynaptic receptor fields, thus boosting postsynaptic sensitivity. This phenomenon is input-specific. Conversely, GluR-IIA was rapidly removed from synapses at which neurotransmitter release failed to evoke substantial postsynaptic depolarisation. This mechanism might be responsible to tame uncontrolled receptor field growth. Combining these results with developmental GluR-IIA dynamics leads to a comprehensive physiological concept, where Hebbian plasticity guides growth of postsynaptic receptor fields and sparse transmitter release stabilises receptor fields by preventing overgrowth. Additionally, a novel mechanism of retrograde signaling was discovered, where direct postsynaptic channelrhodopsin-2 based stimulation, without involvement of presynaptic neurotransmitter release, leads to presynaptic depression. This phenomenon is reminiscent of a known retrograde homeostatic mechanism, of inverted polarity, where neurotransmitter release is upregulated, upon reduction of postsynaptic sensitivity. N2 - Das Phänomen der synaptischen Plastizität bestimmt die Entwicklung funktionaler neuronaler Schaltkreise. Die meisten Neurowissenschaftler betrachten synaptische Plastizität als die neuronal Grundlage von Lernen und Gedächtnis. Es gibt viele Ausprägungsarten synaptischer Plastizität, eine davon ist die sogenannte Hebb’sche Plastizität. Diese ist definiert durch eine aktivitätsinduzierte, langanhaltende Veränderung der Stärke einer synaptischen Verbindung, verursacht durch korrelative Aktivierung der Prä- und der Postsynapse. Zusätzlich ist die Ausbreitung der Hebb’sche Plastizität synapsenspezifisch, d.h. nur die Synapsen, die an der korrelativen Aktivierung teilnehmen, erfahren auch die Veränderung. Das Wachstumssignal breitet sich also nicht auf benachbarte Synapsen aus. Der korrelative Wesenszug der Hebb’schen Plastizität macht sie zu einem naheliegenden zellulären Mechanismus assoziativen Lernens. Es wird angenommen, dass synaptische Aktivität und synaptische Plastizität während der Entwicklung neuronaler Schaltkreise eng gekoppelt sind. Das mechanistische Verständnis dieser Kopplung ist jedoch weitgehend unverstanden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das lichtaktivierbare Kanalrhodopsin-2 verwendet, um Aktivität an der glutamatergen neuromuskulären Synapse in der lebenden, sich frei bewegenden, Drosophila melanogaster Larve auszulösen. Wenn die Prä- und die Postsynapse korrelativ aktiviert wurden, führte dies zur verstärkten Integration von Glutamatrezeptoren des GluR-IIA Typs in die postsynaptischen Rezeptorfelder, was in einer Erhöhung der postsynaptischer Empfindlichkeit mündete. Dieses Platizitätsphänomen wurde als synapsenspezifisch identifiziert und damit als Hebb’sch. Im Gegenzug, wurde der gleiche Rezeptortyp entfernt, wenn Neurotransmitterfreisetzung nicht zu einer erheblichen Depolarisation der Postsynapse führte. Dieser Mechanismus könnte für die Kontrolle des Rezeptorfeldwachstums verantwortlich sein. Es wurde ein physiologisches Modell erarbeitet, bei dem Hebb’sche Plastizität das Wachstum postsynaptischer Rezeptorfelder während der Entwicklung leitet und sporadische, nicht synchronisierte Neurotransmitterfreisetzung die Rezeptorfeldgröße stabilisiert, indem sie das Wachstum Dieser begrenzt. Zusätzlich wurde eine neue Modalität der synaptischen Plastizität an der neuromuskulären Synapse entdeckt: Ein retrograder Signalweg wird aktiviert wenn die postsynaptische Seite, unter Umgehung der Präsynapse, direkt, lichtinduziert aktiviert wird. Dieser Signalweg führt zur präsynaptischen Depression. Das Phänomen erinnert stark an einen bereits bekannten retrograden homöostatischen Mechanismus, reziproker Polarität, bei dem Neurotransmitter Freisetzung hochreguliert wird, wenn die Empfindlichkeit der Postsynapse verringert wird. KW - Synapse KW - Hebbian plasticity KW - synapse KW - Drosophila KW - Plastizität KW - Hebbsche Lernregel KW - Taufliege Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-90465 ER -