TY  - JOUR
A1  - Reinhold, Ann Kristin
A1  - Schwabe, Joachim
A1  - Lux, Thomas J.
A1  - Salvador, Ellaine
A1  - Rittner, Heike L.
T1  - Quantitative and Microstructural Changes of the Blood-Nerve Barrier in Peripheral Neuropathy
JF  - Frontiers in Neuroscience
N2  - Peripheral neuropathy is accompanied by changes in the neuronal environment. The blood-nerve barrier (BNB) is crucial in protecting the neural homeostasis: Tight junctions (TJ) seal paracellular spaces and thus prevent external stimuli from entering. In different models of neuropathic pain, the BNB is impaired, thus contributing to local damage, immune cell invasion and, ultimately, the development of neuropathy with its symptoms. In this study, we examined changes in expression and microstructural localization of two key tight junction proteins (TJP), claudin-1 and the cytoplasmic anchoring ZO-1, in the sciatic nerve of mice subjected to chronic constriction injury (CCI). Via qPCR and analysis of fluorescence immunohistochemistry, a marked downregulation of mRNA as well as decreased fluorescence intensity were observed in the nerve for both proteins. Moreover, a distinct zig-zag structure for both proteins located at cell-cell contacts, indicative of the localization of TJs, was observed in the perineurial compartment of sham-operated animals. This microstructural location in cell-cell-contacts was lost in neuropathy as semiquantified via computational analysis, based on a novel algorithm. In summary, we provide evidence that peripheral neuropathy is not only associated with decrease in relevant TJPs but also exhibits alterations in TJP arrangement and loss in barrier tightness, presumably due to internalization. Specifically, semiquantification of TJP in cell-cell-contacts of microcompartments could be used in the future for routine clinical samples of patients with neuropathy.
KW  - neuropathic pain
KW  - chronic constriction injury
KW  - blood-nerve barrier
KW  - tight junction protein
KW  - claudin-1
KW  - ZO-1
KW  - Expression
KW  - Pain
Y1  - 2018
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-225179
VL  - 12
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Reinhold, Ann Kristin
A1  - Krug, Susanne M.
A1  - Salvador, Ellaine
A1  - Sauer, Reine S.
A1  - Karl-Schöller, Franziska
A1  - Malcangio, Marzia
A1  - Sommer, Claudia
A1  - Rittner, Heike L.
T1  - MicroRNA-21-5p functions via RECK/MMP9 as a proalgesic regulator of the blood nerve barrier in nerve injury
JF  - Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
N2  - Both nerve injury and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) can result in chronic pain. In traumatic neuropathy, the blood nerve barrier (BNB) shielding the nerve is impaired—partly due to dysregulated microRNAs (miRNAs). Upregulation of microRNA-21-5p (miR-21) has previously been documented in neuropathic pain, predominantly due to its proinflammatory features. However, little is known about other functions. Here, we characterized miR-21 in neuropathic pain and its impact on the BNB in a human-murine back translational approach. MiR-21 expression was elevated in plasma of patients with CRPS as well as in nerves of mice after transient and persistent nerve injury. Mice presented with BNB leakage, as well as loss of claudin-1 in both injured and spared nerves. Moreover, the putative miR-21 target RECK was decreased and downstream Mmp9 upregulated, as was Tgfb. In vitro experiments in human epithelial cells confirmed a downregulation of CLDN1 by miR-21 mimics via inhibition of the RECK/MMP9 pathway but not TGFB. Perineurial miR-21 mimic application in mice elicited mechanical hypersensitivity, while local inhibition of miR-21 after nerve injury reversed it. In summary, the data support a novel role for miR-21, independent of prior inflammation, in elicitation of pain and impairment of the BNB via RECK/MMP9.
KW  - claudin-1
KW  - RECK
KW  - MMP9
KW  - CRPS
KW  - microRNA
KW  - neuropathic pain
KW  - blood nerve barrier
Y1  - 2022
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318226
VL  - 1515
IS  - 1
SP  - 184
EP  - 195
ER  - 
TY  - THES
A1  - Böcker, Clemens-Alexander
T1  - Intrazelluläre Signaltransduktionsprozesse bei der Öffnung des Perineuriums
T1  - Intracellular signaling pathways in permeabilisation of the perineurial barrier
N2  - Fragestellung: Experimentelle Ansätze zur selektiven Blockade von nozizeptiven Neuronen sind in vivo stark durch die Diffusionsbarriere des Perineuriums eingeschränkt, die das Vordringen von hydrophilen Substanzen zu ihrem Wirkort verhindert. Entscheidend für diese Barrierefunktion sind Tight Junctions zwischen Perineuralzellen, an deren Ausbildung das Transmembranprotein Claudin-1 beteiligt ist. In Vorarbeiten wurde gezeigt, dass die periphere Injektion einer 10 % NaCl-Lösung zur vorübergehenden Öffnung des Perineuriums führt. Dabei kommt es zur Freisetzung der Matrix-Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), die über Interaktion mit dem low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP-1) Rezeptor eine Konzentrationsabnahme von Claudin-1 bewirkt. Durch perineurale Koinjektion von 10 % NaCl mit dem Opioidagonisten DAMGO ([D-Ala2, N-MePhe4, Gly-ol]-Enkephalin) bzw. Tetrodotoxin ist damit im Verhaltensexperiment ein analgetischer Effekt auszulösen. Beobachtungen an der Blut-Hirn-Schranke konnten eine Öffnung über Interaktion von tPA mit LRP-1 zeigen. In dieser Studie sollten die Barriereöffnung sowie intrazelluläre Signalprozesse, die an der Öffnung des Perineuriums beteiligt sind, unter verschiedenen Bedingungen (hypertone NaCl-Lösung, MMP9 und tPA) charakterisiert werden. 
Methodik: MMP9, 10 % NaCl-Lösung, tPA oder Erk Inhibitor (PD 98059) wurden mit Hilfe eines Nervenstimulators perineural an den N. ischiadicus von Wistar-Ratten injiziert. Danach wurden zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten Nerven entnommen, um im Western Blot die Claudin-1 Expression in der Membranfraktion sowie die Phosphorylierung der intrazellulären Signalproteine Erk und Akt darzustellen. Nach perineuraler Injektion von tPA wurden in Schmerzverhaltenstests die Barriere öffnenden Wirkungen und immunhistochemisch und im Western Blot Auswirkungen auf die Konzentration von Claudin-1 und pErk untersucht.
Ergebnisse: Nach peripherer Injektion der 10 % NaCl-Lösung war über einen Zeitraum von 5-120 min eine Reduktion von Claudin-1 in der Membranfraktion und eine verstärkte Phosphorylierung von Erk nicht aber von Akt zu beobachten. Die Konzentrationszunahme von pErk wurde dabei nur im Perineurium, nicht im Nerveninneren nachgewiesen. Ebenso führte die periphere Injektion von MMP9 zu reduziertem Claudin-1 und einer verstärkten Phosphorylierung von Erk In Verhaltensexperimenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Injektion des Erk-Inhibitors PD98059 dosisabhängig zur Aufhebung der Antinozizeption führte, die nach Gabe von DAMGO in 10 % NaCl zu beobachten war. PD98059 blockierte den Abbau von Claudin-1 nach Injektion von 10 % NaCl. Perineurale Koinjektion von aktivem tPA (als LRP-1 Ligand) und DAMGO ermöglicht ebenfalls antinozizeptive Effekte. Immunhistochemisch und im Western Blot zeigte sich bei verschiedenen Dosierungen von aktivem tPA eine Konzentrationsabnahme von Claudin-1, eine verstärkte Phosphorylierung von Erk war jedoch nicht nachzuweisen. Nach Injektion von enzymatisch inaktiviertem tPA konnte nach einer Stunde keine Claudin-1 Konzentrationsänderung beobachtet werden.
Interpretation: Nach Injektion von 10 % NaCl kommt es zur verstärkten Phosphorylierung von Erk, die sich durch eine Interaktion der MMP9 Hemopexin- Domäne (MMP9-PEX) mit dem LRP-1 Rezeptor erklären lässt. Folge dieser Signalprozesse ist eine Konzentrationsabnahme von Claudin-1 und eine erhöhte Permeabilität des Perineuriums. Ähnlich zeigen erste Experimente auch nach Injektion von tPA eine Konzentrationsabnahme von Claudin. Damit bietet LRP-1 einen innovativen Angriffspunkt, um auch in vivo durch Öffnung des Perineuriums neue hydrophile Medikamente zur selektiven Blockade von Schmerzfasern zu nutzen.
N2  - Introduction: Approaches for the selective blockade of nociceptive neurons are limited in-vivo by the perineurial barrier, which prevents delivery of hydrophilic drugs to the peripheral nerve. The perineurium is composed of a basal membrane with a layer of perineurial cells and tight junctions limiting paracellular permeability. The tight junction protein claudin-1 is expressed in the perineurium and associated with permeability changes. Perineurial injection of hypertonic saline (HTS) has been used to increase perineurial permeability. Injection of HTS leads to a release of the matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), which induces down-regulation of claudin-1 by binding to the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein1 (LRP-1). Perisciatic injection of HTS together with the opioid-receptor agonist DAMGO ([D-Ala2, N-MePhe4, Gly-ol]-Enkephalin) results in a dose-dependent antinociceptive effect. Studies of the blood-brain-barrier suggest a barrier-opening effect of tPA by binding to LRP-1. In this study, we characterize intracellular signaling pathways, which are involved in opening the perineurial barrier after application of different agents (HTS, MMP9 and tPA).
Methods: MMP9, HTS, tPA or Erk-Inhibitor PD98059 were injected perisciatically in Wistar rats. Sciatic nerves were harvested after indicated time points and used for Western Blotting or Immunofluorescence experiments. 
Results: Perisciatic injection of HTS transiently enhanced Erk phosphorylation in the sciatic nerve beginning 5 min after application. Erk protein expression remained unchanged. The increase of Erk phosphorylation was confined to the perineurium. Application of recombinant MMP9 perisciatically also resulted in phosphorylation of ERK within the first 30 min. Perisciatic injection of the Erk inhibitor PD98059 dose-dependently and almost completely blocked the ability of HTS to facilitate DAMGO-induced increases in mechanical nociceptive thresholds and blocked the reduction in claudin-1 content  after HTS injection at the sciatic nerve.  In contrast, neither perineurial treatment with HTS nor MMP9 changed the phosphorylation of the Akt kinase in the perineurium. Perisciatic injection of tPA (as a LRP-1 ligand) and DAMGO also resulted in an increase of mechanical nociceptive thresholds. Immunofluorescence and Western Blots revealed a down-regulation of claudin-1 after injection of different concentrations of tPA. However, injection of tPA did not result in an enhanced Erk phosphorylation. No change in claudin-1 concentration was observed after perisciatic injection of enzymatic inactive tPA. 
Discussion: Perisciatic injection of HTS results in an increased phosphorylation of Erk. This seems to be mediated by a release of MMP9 and binding of its hemopexin domain to LRP-1. Activation of the Erk signaling pathway leads to a down-regulation of claudin-1 and an increased permeability of the perineurial barrier. Similarly, injection of tPA (a known LRP-1 agonist) also results in a decreased claudin-1 concentration. Our findings reveal LRP-1 as a unique molecular target to allow for specific antinociception by controlled opening of the perineurial barrier.
KW  - peripherer Nerv
KW  - Schmerz
KW  - Perineurium
KW  - Erk
KW  - Claudin-1
KW  - LRP1
KW  - rtPA
KW  - perineurium
KW  - Erk
KW  - claudin-1
KW  - LRP1
Y1  - 2014
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-132949
ER  -