TY - THES A1 - Pei, Geng T1 - The Role of Raf-mediated Signalling Pathways for Motoneuron T1 - Die Rolle von Raf-vermittelten Signalwegen bei Entwicklung und Überleben von Motoneuronen N2 - The transmission of proliferative and developmental signals from activated cell-surface receptors to initiation of cellular responses in the nucleus is synergically controlled by the coordinated action of a diverse set of intracellular signalling proteins. The Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK signalling pathway has been shown to control the expression of genes which are crucial for the physiological regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Within this signalling cascade, the Raf protein family of serine/threonine kinases serves as a central intermediate which connects to many of other signal transduction pathways. To elucidate the signalling functions of the different Raf kinases in motoneurons during development, the expression, distribution and subcellular localization of Rafs in the spinal cord and the facial nucleus in brainstem of mice at various embryonic and postnatal stages were investigated. Moreover, we have investigated the intracellular redistribution of Raf molecules in isolated motoneurons from 13 or 14 day old mouse embryos, after addition or withdrawal of neurotrophic factors to induce Raf kinases activation in vitro. Furthermore, in order to investigate the potential anti-apoptotic function of Raf kinases on motoneurons, we isolated motoneurons from B-raf-/- and c-raf-1-/- mouse embryos and analysed the survival and differentiation effects of neurotrophic factors in motoneurons lacking B-Raf and c-Raf-1. We provide evidence here that all three Raf kinases are expressed in mouse spinal motoneurons. Their expression increases during the period of naturally occurring cell death of motoneurons. In sections of embryonic and postnatal spinal cord, motoneurons express exclusively B-Raf and c-Raf-1, but not A-Raf, and subcellularly Raf kinases are obviously colocalized with mitochondria. In isolated motoneurons, most of the B-Raf or c-Raf-1 immunoreactivity is located in the perinuclear space but also in the nucleus, especially after activation by addition of CNTF and BDNF in vitro. We found that c-Raf-1 translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus of motoneurons after its activation by neurotrophic factors is a distinct event. As a central finding of our study, we observed that the viability of isolated motoneurons from B-raf but not c-raf-1 knockout mice is lost even in the presence of CNTF and other neurotrophic factors. This indicates that B-Raf but not c-Raf-1, which is still present in B-raf deficient motoneurons, plays a crucial role in mediating the survival effect of neurotrophic factors during development. In order to prove that B-Raf is an essential player in this scenario, we have re-expressed B-Raf in mutant sensory and motor neurons by transfection. The motoneurons and the sensory neurons from B-raf knockout mouse which were transfected with exogenous B-raf gene revealed the same viability in the presence of neurotrophic factors as primary neurons from wild-type mice. Our results suggest that Raf kinases have important signalling functions in motoneurons in mouse CNS. In vitro, activation causes redistribution of Raf protein kinases, particularly for c-Raf-1, from motoneuronal cytoplasm into the nucleus. This redistribution of c-Raf-1, however, is not necessary for the survival effect of neurotrophic factors, given that B-raf-/- motor and sensory neurons can not survive despite the presence of c-Raf-1. We hypothesize that c-Raf-1 nuclear translocation may play a direct role in transcriptional regulation as a consequence of neurotrophic factor induced phosphorylation and activation of c-Raf-1 in motoneurons. Moreover, the identification of target genes for nuclear translocated c-Raf-1 and of specific cellular functions initiated by this mechanism awaits its characterization. N2 - Die Vermittlung von wachstumsfördernden und entwicklungsspezifischen Signalen von aktivierten Zelloberflächenrezeptoren führt zur Initiation von Transkriptionsprogrammen im Zellkern, die durch das koodinierte Zusammenwirken von intrazellulären Signalproteinen synergistisch gesteuert werden. Der Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK-Weg steuert die Expression von Genen für die physiologische Regulation der Zellproliferation, Differenzierung und Apoptose. Innerhalb dieser Signalkaskade stellen die Serin/Threonin Kinasen der Raf Familie eine zentrale Zwischenstufe dar, die Verbindungen zu vielen anderen Signaltransduktionswegen herstellt. Um die Funktionen der verschiedenen Raf-Kinasen in Motoneuronen während der Entwicklung aufzuklären, wurden die Expression, Verteilung und subzelluläre Lokalisation der Raf-Isoformen in spinalen Motoneuronen und im Nucleus Fazialis der Maus während der Embryonalentwicklung und postnatal untersucht. Desweiteren haben wir die intrazelluläre Umverteilung der Raf-Moleküle in isolierten Motoneuronen von 13 oder 14 Tage alten Mäusembryonen untersucht. Um die Rolle der Raf-Kinasen nach Zugabe oder Entzug von neurotrophen Faktoren bei Motoneuronen zu untersuchen, analysierten wir die Überlebens-und Differenzierungseffekte von neurotrophen Faktoren bei Motoneuronen von B-raf oder c-raf-1 defizienten Mäusen. Wir zeigen in dieser Arbeit, daß alle drei Raf-Kinasen in spinalen Motoneuronen der Mäuse exprimiert sind. Ihre Expression steigt während der Zeit des natürlich auftretenden Zelltods. An Schnitten von embryonalem und postnatalem Rückenmark exprimieren Motoneurone ausschließlich B-Raf and c-Raf-1, aber nicht A-Raf. Raf-Kinasen sind offensichtlich an Mitochondrien lokalisiert. In isolierten Motoneuronen findet man B-Raf und c-Raf-1, Immunreaktivität vor allem im perinukleären Bereich, aber auch im Zellkern, vor allem nach Aktivierung durch Zugabe von CNTF und BDNF in vitro. Wir haben gefunden, daß die Translokation von c-Raf-1 vom Zytosol in den Nukleus von Motoneuronen nach Aktivierung durch neurotrophe Faktoren ein spezifischer Vorgang ist. Als zentralen Befund dieser Arbeit beobachteten wir, daß Motoneurone von B-raf-/-, aber nicht von c-raf-1-/-, Embryonen nicht lebensfähig sind, auch nicht in Gegenwart von CNTF oder anderer neurotropher Faktoren. Dies bedeutet, daß B-Raf und nicht c-Raf-1, welches noch immer in B-raf defizienten Motoneuronen präsent ist, eine entscheidende Rolle als Vermitter des Überlebenseffektes von neurotrophen Faktoren spielt. Um zu beweisen, daß B-Raf hierbei eine essentielle Komponente darstellt, haben wir in B-raf defizienten sensorischen und Motoneuronen B-Raf durch Transfektion exprimiert. Erfolgreich mit B-raf Plasmid transfizierte B-raf-/- sensorische und Motoneurone zeigten dieselbe Überlebensfähigkeit in Gegenwart von neurotrophen Faktoren wie primäre Neurone von Wildtyp-Mäusen. Diese Arbeit zeigt daher, daß Raf-Kinasen wichtige Funktionen in Motoneuronen der Maus haben. Die Aktivierung von Raf-Kinasen in vitro führt zur Änderung ihrer subzellulären Verteilung, vor allem von c-Raf-1 vom Zytoplasma in den Kern. Diese Umverteilung von c-Raf-1 ist jedoch nicht notwendig für den Überlebenseffekt von neurotrophen Faktoren, vor allem, wenn man in Betracht zieht, daß B-raf defiziente sensorische und Motoneuronen trotz der Gegenwart von c-Raf-1 nicht überleben. Wir nehmen an, daß die nukleäre Translokation von c-Raf-1 eine direkte Rolle bei der transkriptionellen Regulation durch neurotrophe Faktoren spielt. Die Indentifizierung von c-Raf-1 regulierten Zielgenen und von durch diese beeinflussten zellulären Funktionen ist eine Aufgabe für die Zukunft. KW - Maus KW - Motoneuron KW - Zelldifferenzierung KW - Raf KW - Signaltransduktion KW - Raf-Kinasen KW - Motoneuron KW - Raf-Kinase KW - Zentrales Nervensystem KW - motoneuron KW - Raf KW - CNS Y1 - 2000 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-1846 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Koeniger, Tobias A1 - Kuerten, Stefanie T1 - Splitting the "unsplittable": Dissecting resident and infiltrating macrophages in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis JF - International Journal of Molecular Sciences N2 - Macrophages predominate the inflammatory landscape within multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions, not only regarding cellularity but also with respect to the diverse functions this cell fraction provides during disease progression and remission. Researchers have been well aware of the fact that the macrophage pool during central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity consists of a mixture of myeloid cells. Yet, separating these populations to define their unique contribution to disease pathology has long been challenging due to their similar marker expression. Sophisticated lineage tracing approaches as well as comprehensive transcriptome analysis have elevated our insight into macrophage biology to a new level enabling scientists to dissect the roles of resident (microglia and non-parenchymal macrophages) and infiltrating macrophages with unprecedented precision. To do so in an accurate way, researchers have to know their toolbox, which has been filled with diverse, discriminating approaches from decades of studying neuroinflammation in animal models. Every method has its own strengths and weaknesses, which will be addressed in this review. The focus will be on tools to manipulate and/or identify different macrophage subgroups within the injured murine CNS. KW - CNS KW - distinction KW - experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis KW - inflammation KW - macrophages KW - markers KW - microglia KW - monocytes Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-285067 SN - 1422-0067 VL - 18 IS - 10 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Heinsen, Helmut A1 - Heinsen, Y. L. T1 - Serial thick, frozen, gallocyanin stained sections of human central nervous system N2 - A rapid method for macroscopic and microscopic investigation of human CNS is proposed. After fonnalin fixation, gelatin or agarose embedding, and cryoprotective treatment, frozen human spinal cords, brainstems, or hemispheres can be serially cut into 0.7 mm thick slices. Stained with gallocyanin-chromalum, these slices facilitate cytoarchitectonic, neuropathologic, and quantitative examination. Regions of interest from parallel fonnalin-stored unstained slices can be embedded into paraffin and stained by any irnrnunocytologic and histologic stain compatible with fonnalin fixation and paraffin embedding. KW - CNS KW - comparative anatomy KW - cytoarchitectonics KW - neuroimaging KW - neuropathology KW - Nissl stain KW - quantitative anatomy Y1 - 1991 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-45741 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schampel, Andrea A1 - Kuerten, Stefanie T1 - Danger: high voltage - the role of voltage-gated calcium channels in central nervous system pathology JF - Cells N2 - Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) are widely distributed within the central nervous system (CNS) and presumed to play an important role in the pathophysiology of a broad spectrum of CNS disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease as well as multiple sclerosis. Several calcium channel blockers have been in clinical practice for many years so that their toxicity and side effects are well studied. However, these drugs are primarily used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and most if not all effects on brain functions are secondary to peripheral effects on blood pressure and circulation. While the use of calcium channel antagonists for the treatment of CNS diseases therefore still heavily depends on the development of novel strategies to specifically target different channels and channel subunits, this review is meant to provide an impulse to further emphasize the importance of future research towards this goal. KW - cells KW - calcium KW - calcium channel antagonists KW - CNS KW - EAE KW - neurodegeneration KW - MS KW - regeneration KW - remyelination Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-172653 VL - 6 IS - 4 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Simon, Micha A1 - Ipek, Rojda A1 - Homola, György A. A1 - Rovituso, Damiano M. A1 - Schampel, Andrea A1 - Kleinschnitz, Christoph A1 - Kuerten, Stefanie T1 - Anti-CD52 antibody treatment depletes B cell aggregates in the central nervous system in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis JF - Journal of Neuroinflammation N2 - Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) for which several new treatment options were recently introduced. Among them is the monoclonal anti-CD52 antibody alemtuzumab that depletes mainly B cells and T cells in the immune periphery. Considering the ongoing controversy about the involvement of B cells and in particular the formation of B cell aggregates in the brains of progressive MS patients, an in-depth understanding of the effects of anti-CD52 antibody treatment on the B cell compartment in the CNS itself is desirable. Methods: We used myelin basic protein (MBP)-proteolipid protein (PLP)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in C57BL/6 (B6) mice as B cell-dependent model of MS. Mice were treated intraperitoneally either at the peak of EAE or at 60 days after onset with 200 μg murine anti-CD52 vs. IgG2a isotype control antibody for five consecutive days. Disease was subsequently monitored for 10 days. The antigen-specific B cell/antibody response was measured by ELISPOT and ELISA. Effects on CNS infiltration and B cell aggregation were determined by immunohistochemistry. Neurodegeneration was evaluated by Luxol Fast Blue, SMI-32, and Olig2/APC staining as well as by electron microscopy and phosphorylated heavy neurofilament serum ELISA. Results: Treatment with anti-CD52 antibody attenuated EAE only when administered at the peak of disease. While there was no effect on the production of MP4-specific IgG, the treatment almost completely depleted CNS infiltrates and B cell aggregates even when given as late as 60 days after onset. On the ultrastructural level, we observed significantly less axonal damage in the spinal cord and cerebellum in chronic EAE after anti-CD52 treatment. Conclusion: Anti-CD52 treatment abrogated B cell infiltration and disrupted existing B cell aggregates in the CNS. KW - Alemtuzumab KW - B cells KW - CD52 KW - CNS KW - EAE KW - MS Y1 - 2018 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-176120 VL - 15 IS - 225 ER -