TY - JOUR A1 - Bodden, Carina A1 - Richter, S. Helene A1 - Schreiber, Rebecca S. A1 - Kloke, Vanessa A1 - Gerß, Joachim A1 - Palme, Rupert A1 - Lesch, Klaus-Peter A1 - Lewejohann, Lars A1 - Kaiser, Sylvia A1 - Sachser, Norbert T1 - Benefits of adversity?! How life history affects the behavioral profile of mice varying in serotonin transporter genotype JF - Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience N2 - Behavioral profiles are influenced by both positive and negative experiences as well as the genetic disposition. Traditionally, accumulating adversity over lifetime is considered to predict increased anxiety like behavior ("allostatic load"). The alternative "mismatch hypothesis" suggests increased levels of anxiety if the early environment differs from the later-life environment. Thus, there is a need for a whole-life history approach to gain a deeper understanding of how behavioral profiles are shaped. The aim of this study was to elucidate the effects of life history on the behavioral profile of mice varying in serotonin transporter (5-HIT) genotype, an established mouse model of increased anxiety-like behavior. For this purpose, mice grew up under either adverse or beneficial conditions during early phases of life. In adulthood, they were further subdivided so as to face a situation that either matched or mismatched the condition experienced so far, resulting in four different life histories. Subsequently, mice were tested for their anxiety-like and exploratory behavior. The main results were: (1) Life history profoundly modulated the behavioral profile. Surprisingly, mice that experienced early beneficial and later escapable adverse conditions showed less anxiety-like and more exploratory behavior compared to mice of other life histories. (2) Genotype significantly influenced the behavioral profile, with homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice displaying highest levels of anxiety-like and lowest levels of exploratory behavior. Our findings concerning life history indicate that the absence of adversity does not necessarily cause lower levels of anxiety than accumulating adversity. Rather, some adversity may be beneficial, particularly when following positive events. Altogether, we conclude that for an understanding of behavioral profiles, it is not sufficient to look at experiences during single phases of life, but the whole life history has to be considered. KW - anxiety-like behavior KW - maternal care KW - dangerous world KW - animal behavior KW - match-mismatch KW - chronic social stress KW - elevated plus-maze KW - 5-HTT KW - life history KW - predictive adaptive response hypothesis KW - developmental plasticity KW - knockout mice KW - environmental enrichment KW - allostatic load Y1 - 2015 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-143723 VL - 9 IS - 47 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kloke, Vanessa A1 - Schreiber, Rebecca S. A1 - Bodden, Carina A1 - Möllers, Julian A1 - Ruhmann, Hanna A1 - Kaiser, Sylvia A1 - Lesch, Klaus-Peter A1 - Sachser, Norbert A1 - Lewejohann, Lars T1 - Hope for the Best or Prepare for the Worst? Towards a Spatial Cognitive Bias Test for Mice JF - PLOS ONE N2 - Cognitive bias, the altered information processing resulting from the background emotional state of an individual, has been suggested as a promising new indicator of animal emotion. Comparable to anxious or depressed humans, animals in a putatively negative emotional state are more likely to judge an ambiguous stimulus as if it predicts a negative event, than those in positive states. The present study aimed to establish a cognitive bias test for mice based on a spatial judgment task and to apply it in a pilot study to serotonin transporter (5-HTT) knockout mice, a well-established mouse model for the study of anxiety- and depression-related behavior. In a first step, we validated that our setup can assess different expectations about the outcome of an ambiguous stimulus: mice having learned to expect something positive within a maze differed significantly in their behavior towards an unfamiliar location than animals having learned to expect something negative. In a second step, the use of spatial location as a discriminatory stimulus was confirmed by showing that mice interpret an ambiguous stimulus depending on its spatial location, with a position exactly midway between a positive and a negative reference point provoking the highest level of ambiguity. Finally, the anxiety- and depression-like phenotype of the 5-HTT knockout mouse model manifested - comparable to human conditions - in a trend for a negatively distorted interpretation of ambiguous information, albeit this effect was not statistically significant. The results suggest that the present cognitive bias test provides a useful basis to study the emotional state in mice, which may not only increase the translational value of animal models in the study of human affective disorders, but which is also a central objective of animal welfare research. KW - emotional information KW - serotonin transporter gene KW - attentional bias KW - laboratory environment KW - animal behavior KW - promoter region KW - deficient mice KW - affective state KW - knockout mice KW - judgement bias Y1 - 2014 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-115569 VL - 9 IS - 8 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hohoff, Christa A1 - Gorji, Ali A1 - Kaiser, Sylvia A1 - Willscher, Edith A1 - Korsching, Eberhard A1 - Ambrée, Oliver A1 - Arolt, Volker A1 - Lesch, Klaus-Peter A1 - Sachser, Norbert A1 - Deckert, Jürgen A1 - Lewejohann, Lars T1 - Effect of Acute Stressor and Serotonin Transporter Genotype on Amygdala First Wave Transcriptome in Mice JF - PLoS ONE N2 - The most prominent brain region evaluating the significance of external stimuli immediately after their onset is the amygdala. Stimuli evaluated as being stressful actuate a number of physiological processes as an immediate stress response. Variation in the serotonin transporter gene has been associated with increased anxiety- and depression-like behavior, altered stress reactivity and adaptation, and pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. In this study the instant reactions to an acute stressor were measured in a serotonin transporter knockout mouse model. Mice lacking the serotonin transporter were verified to be more anxious than their wild-type conspecifics. Genome-wide gene expression changes in the amygdala were measured after the mice were subjected to control condition or to an acute stressor of one minute exposure to water. The dissection of amygdalae and stabilization of RNA was conducted within nine minutes after the onset of the stressor. This extremely short protocol allowed for analysis of first wave primary response genes, typically induced within five to ten minutes of stimulation, and was performed using Affymetrix GeneChip Mouse Gene 1.0 ST Arrays. RNA profiling revealed a largely new set of differentially expressed primary response genes between the conditions acute stress and control that differed distinctly between wild-type and knockout mice. Consequently, functional categorization and pathway analysis indicated genes related to neuroplasticity and adaptation in wild-types whereas knockouts were characterized by impaired plasticity and genes more related to chronic stress and pathophysiology. Our study therefore disclosed different coping styles dependent on serotonin transporter genotype even directly after the onset of stress and accentuates the role of the serotonergic system in processing stressors and threat in the amygdala. Moreover, several of the first wave primary response genes that we found might provide promising targets for future therapeutic interventions of stress-related disorders also in humans. KW - plasticity KW - corticotropin releasing factor KW - primary response genes KW - spatial memory KW - knockout mice KW - rat brain KW - in vivo KW - expression KW - anxiety KW - emotion Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-131040 VL - 8 IS - 3 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schaefer, Natscha A1 - Vogel, Nicolas A1 - Villmann, Carmen T1 - Glycine receptor mutants of the mouse: what are possible routes of inhibitory compensation? JF - Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience N2 - Defects in glycinergic inhibition result in a complex neuromotor disorder in humans known as hyperekplexia (OMIM 149400) with similar phenotypes in rodents characterized by an exaggerated startle reflex and hypertonia. Analogous to genetic defects in humans single point mutations, microdeletions, or insertions in the Glra1 gene but also in the Glrb gene underlie the pathology in mice. The mutations either localized in the (spasmodic, oscillator, cincinnati, Nmf11) or the (spastic) subunit of the glycine receptor (GlyR) are much less tolerated in mice than in humans, leaving the question for the existence of different regulatory elements of the pathomechanisms in humans and rodents. In addition to the spontaneous mutations, new insights into understanding of the regulatory pathways in hyperekplexia or glycine encephalopathy arose from the constantly increasing number of knock-out as well as knock-in mutants of GlyRs. Over the last five years, various efforts using in vivo whole cell recordings provided a detailed analysis of the kinetic parameters underlying glycinergic dysfunction. Presynaptic compensation as well as postsynaptic compensatory mechanisms in these mice by other GlyR subunits or GABA(A) receptors, and the role of extra-synaptic GlyRs is still a matter of debate. A recent study on the mouse mutant oscillator displayed a novel aspect for compensation of functionality by complementation of receptor domains that fold independently. This review focuses on defects in glycinergic neurotransmission in mice discussed with the background of human hyperekplexia en route to strategies of compensation. KW - GlyRs KW - rescue KW - hyperekplexia KW - knockout mice KW - spontaneous mouse mutants KW - synaptic inhibition Y1 - 2012 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-123839 VL - 5 IS - 98 ER - TY - THES A1 - Bundschu, Karin T1 - Generation and characterization of spred-2 knockout mice T1 - Generierung und Charakterisierung von Spred-2 Knockout Mäusen N2 - Spreds are a new Sprouty-related family of membrane-associated proteins inhibiting the MAPK signaling pathway by interacting with Ras and Raf-1. Different studies have already demonstrated the inhibitory function of Spreds in cell culture systems, but the in vivo function of Spreds in the whole organism was still unclear. Therefore, Spred-2 knockout mice were generated using a gene trap approach. The Spred-2 deficiency was verified on RNA and protein levels and the lack of functional Spred-2 protein in mice caused a dwarf phenotype similar to achondroplasia, the most common form of human dwarfism. Spred-2-/- mice showed reduced growth and body weight, they had a shorter tibia length and showed narrower growth plates as compared to wildtype mice. Spred-2 promoter activity and protein expression were detected in chondrocytes, suggesting an important function of Spred-2 in chondrocytes and bone development. Furthermore, stimulation of chondrocytes with different FGF concentrations showed earlier and augmented ERK phosphorylation in Spred-2-/- chondrocytes as compared to Spred-2+/+ chondrocytes. These observations suggest a model, in which loss of Spred-2 inhibits bone growth by inhibiting chondrocyte differentiation through upregulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. An additional observation of Spred-2-/- mice was an increased bleeding phenotype after injuries, whereas the bleeding volume was extremely enlarged and the bleeding time was significantly prolonged. So far, hypertension as cause could be excluded, but to discover the physiological reasons for this phenotype, the different steps of the clotting cascade have to be investigated further. As the Spred-2 promoter activity studies demonstrated a high and specific Spred-2 expression in vascular smooth muscle cells and previous studies showed an interaction of Spreds with RhoA, a key regulator of vascular smooth muscle contraction, the regulation of smooth muscle contractility seems to be a good candidate of this phenomenon. Moreover, Spred-1 and Spred-2 specific antibodies were generated as important tools to study the protein expression patterns in mice. Furthermore, nothing was known about the Spred-2 promoter region and its regulation. Here, a detailed in situ analysis of the physiological promoter activity profile in the gene trapped Spred-2-deficient mouse strain was shown. In these mice, the beta-galactosidase and neomycin fusion gene (β-geo) of the gene trap vector was brought under control of the endogenous Spred-2 promoter, giving the opportunity to monitor Spred-2 promoter activity in practically every organ and their corresponding sub-compartments. X-Gal staining of sections of newborn and adult mice revealed 1) a very high Spred-2 promoter activity in neural tissues and different glands; 2) a high activity in intestinal and uterine smooth muscle cells, and kidney; 3) a low activity in heart, testis, lung, and liver; 4) an almost lacking activity in skeletal muscle and spleen, and 5) very interestingly, a very distinct and strong activity in vascular smooth muscle cells. Moreover, comparison of newborn and adult mouse organs revealed a nearly congruent Spred-2 promoter activity. These detailed data provide valuable information for further studies of the physiological functions of Spred-2 in organs showing strong Spred-2 promoter activity, which are in most of these organs still unclear. Finally, gene targeting vectors for Spred-1 and Spred-2 were cloned, to generate ES cells with a floxed exon 2 of the Spred-1 and Spred-2 gene, respectively. Now, these ES cells are valuable tools to establish conditional knockout mice. This is of major interest to investigate the physiological tissue specific functions of Spred-1 and Spred-2, especially if the double knockout mice are not viable. N2 - Spreds gehören zu einer neuen Sprouty-verwandten Familie Membran-assoziierter Proteine, welche den MAPK Signalweg hemmen, indem sie mit Ras und Raf-1 interagieren. In Zellkultur-Systemen haben mehrere Studien bereits die hemmende Funktion von Spred gezeigt, aber die in vivo Funktion im Gesamtorganismus blieb bisher noch ungeklärt. In dieser Arbeit wurden deshalb Spred-2 Knockout Mäuse mithilfe eines Gene-trap Ansatzes generiert. Die Spred-2 Eliminierung konnte auf RNA- und Protein-Ebene bestätigt werden, und der Verlust des funktionsfähigen Spred-2 Proteins führte zu einem Achondroplasie-ähnlichen Zwergenwuchs, der häufigsten Form des menschlichen Zwergenwuchses. Die Spred-2-/- Mäuse waren insgesamt kleiner und hatten ein vermindertes Körpergewicht. Im Vergleich zu Wildtyp Mäusen war die Tibia-Länge verkürzt und die Wachstumsfugen verschmälert. In Knorpelzellen wurde sowohl die Aktivität des Spred-2 Promoters, als auch eine Spred-2 Proteinexpression detektiert, was auf eine wichtige Funktion in Knorpelzellen und bei der Knochenentwicklung schließen lässt. Im Vergleich zu Spred-2+/+ Knorpelzellen zeigte die Stimulierung von Spred-2-/- Knorpelzellen mit verschiedenen FGF-Konzentrationen eine frühere und verstärkte ERK-Phosphorylierung. Diese Beobachtungen deuten auf einen Mechanismus hin, bei dem der Verlust von Spred-2 das Knochenwachstum hemmt, indem die Knorpel-Differenzierung durch eine Hochregulation des MAPK Signalweges gehemmt wird. Spred-2-/- Mäuse zeigten nach Verletzungen eine erhöhte Blutungsneigung, wobei das verlorene Blutvolumen extrem vergrößert und die Blutungszeit signifikant verlängert war. Bislang konnte Bluthochdruck als Ursache ausgeschlossen werden, aber die verschiedenen Stufen der Blutstillung und Gerinnungskaskade müssen noch weiter untersucht werden, um die physiologischen Ursachen dieses Phänotyps ausfindig machen zu können. Untersuchungen der Spred-2 Promotoraktivität zeigten eine starke und spezifische Expression von Spred-2 in glatten Gefäßmuskelzellen. Außerdem zeigten vorhergehende Studien eine Interaktion von Spreds mit RhoA, einem Hauptregulator der Kontraktion glatter Gefäßmuskelzellen. Diesen Beobachtungen zufolge scheint die Regulation der Kontraktilität glatter Gefäßmuskelzellen ein guter Kandidat für dieses Phänomen zu sein. Weiterhin wurden Spred-1 und Spred-2 spezifische Antikörper hergestellt, die als elementares Werkzeug zur Untersuchung der Proteinexpression in der Maus notwendig waren. Bisher gab es noch keine Informationen über die Region und Regulation des Spred-2 Promotors. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine detaillierte in situ Analyse des physiologischen Promotoraktivitätsprofils in der Spred-2 defizienten Mauslinie gezeigt, die mit Hilfe des Gene-trap Vektors generiert wurde. In diesen Mäusen wurde das beta-Galaktosidase/Neomycin-Resistenz Fusionsgen (β-geo) des Gene-trap Vektors unter die Kontrolle des endogenen Spred-2 Promotors gebracht, und lieferte damit die Möglichkeit, die Spred-2 Promotoraktivität in praktisch jedem Organ und den zugehörigen Teilstrukturen beobachten zu können. X-Gal Färbungen von Gewebeschnitten neugeborener und erwachsener Mäuse zeigten 1) eine sehr starke Spred-2 Promotoraktivität in Nervengeweben und verschiedenen Drüsen; 2) eine starke Aktivität in glatten Muskelzellen des Uterus und Verdauungstraktes, sowie der Nieren; 3) eine geringe Aktivität in Herz, Hoden, Lunge und Leber; 4) eine fast fehlende Aktivität in Skelettmuskeln und Milz; und 5) interessanterweise eine starke und eindeutige Aktivität in glatten Gefäßmuskelzellen. Außerdem zeigte der Vergleich zwischen Organen von neugeborenen und erwachsenen Mäusen ein fast identisches Aktivitätsmuster. Diese detaillierten Daten liefern hilfreiche Informationen für weitere Untersuchungen der physiologischen Funktionen von Spred-2 vor allem in Organen mit starker Spred-2 Promotoraktivität, die in den meisten dieser Organe bisher noch immer ungeklärt sind. Zuletzt wurden in dieser Arbeit noch Gene-targeting Vektoren für Spred-1 und Spred-2 kloniert, die zur Generierung von embryonalen Stammzellen mit gefloxtem Exon 2 des Spred-1 bzw. Spred-2 Gens genutzt wurden. Diese embryonalen Stammzellen stehen nun als wertvolle Grundlage zur Etablierung von konditionalen Knockout Mäusen zur Verfügung. Dies ist von großem Interesse, um die physiologischen gewebespezifischen Funktionen von Spred-1 und Spred-2 zu untersuchen, vor allem wenn die Doppel-Knockout Mäuse nicht lebensfähig sein sollten. KW - Spred Protein KW - Knockout KW - Maus KW - Spred KW - Knockout Mäuse KW - Zwergenwuchs KW - EVH-1 KW - MAP Kinase KW - Spred KW - knockout mice KW - dwarfism KW - EVH-1 KW - MAP kinase Y1 - 2005 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-14333 ER -