TY  - JOUR
A1  - Nowacka-Chmielewska, Marta
A1  - Grabowska, Konstancja
A1  - Grabowski, Mateusz
A1  - Meybohm, Patrick
A1  - Burek, Malgorzata
A1  - Małecki, Andrzej
T1  - Running from stress: neurobiological mechanisms of exercise-induced stress resilience
JF  - International Journal of Molecular Sciences
N2  - Chronic stress, even stress of a moderate intensity related to daily life, is widely acknowledged to be a predisposing or precipitating factor in neuropsychiatric diseases. There is a clear relationship between disturbances induced by stressful stimuli, especially long-lasting stimuli, and cognitive deficits in rodent models of affective disorders. Regular physical activity has a positive effect on the central nervous system (CNS) functions, contributes to an improvement in mood and of cognitive abilities (including memory and learning), and is correlated with an increase in the expression of the neurotrophic factors and markers of synaptic plasticity as well as a reduction in the inflammatory factors. Studies published so far show that the energy challenge caused by physical exercise can affect the CNS by improving cellular bioenergetics, stimulating the processes responsible for the removal of damaged organelles and molecules, and attenuating inflammation processes. Regular physical activity brings another important benefit: increased stress robustness. The evidence from animal studies is that a sedentary lifestyle is associated with stress vulnerability, whereas a physically active lifestyle is associated with stress resilience. Here, we have performed a comprehensive PubMed Search Strategy for accomplishing an exhaustive literature review. In this review, we discuss the findings from experimental studies on the molecular and neurobiological mechanisms underlying the impact of exercise on brain resilience. A thorough understanding of the mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective potential of preconditioning exercise and of the role of exercise in stress resilience, among other things, may open further options for prevention and therapy in the treatment of CNS diseases.
KW  - stress
KW  - stress resilience
KW  - anxiety
KW  - depression
KW  - neuropsychiatric disorders
KW  - physical activity
KW  - exercise
Y1  - 2022
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-297407
SN  - 1422-0067
VL  - 23
IS  - 21
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Jansch, Charline
A1  - Ziegler, Georg C.
A1  - Forero, Andrea
A1  - Gredy, Sina
A1  - Wäldchen, Sina
A1  - Vitale, Maria Rosaria
A1  - Svirin, Evgeniy
A1  - Zöller, Johanna E. M.
A1  - Waider, Jonas
A1  - Günther, Katharina
A1  - Edenhofer, Frank
A1  - Sauer, Markus
A1  - Wischmeyer, Erhard
A1  - Lesch, Klaus-Peter
T1  - Serotonin-specific neurons differentiated from human iPSCs form distinct subtypes with synaptic protein assembly
JF  - Journal of Neural Transmission
N2  - Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have revolutionized the generation of experimental disease models, but the development of protocols for the differentiation of functionally active neuronal subtypes with defined specification is still in its infancy. While dysfunction of the brain serotonin (5-HT) system has been implicated in the etiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders, investigation of functional human 5-HT specific neurons in vitro has been restricted by technical limitations. We describe an efficient generation of functionally active neurons from hiPSCs displaying 5-HT specification by modification of a previously reported protocol. Furthermore, 5-HT specific neurons were characterized using high-end fluorescence imaging including super-resolution microscopy in combination with electrophysiological techniques. Differentiated hiPSCs synthesize 5-HT, express specific markers, such as tryptophan hydroxylase 2 and 5-HT transporter, and exhibit an electrophysiological signature characteristic of serotonergic neurons, with spontaneous rhythmic activities, broad action potentials and large afterhyperpolarization potentials. 5-HT specific neurons form synapses reflected by the expression of pre- and postsynaptic proteins, such as Bassoon and Homer. The distribution pattern of Bassoon, a marker of the active zone along the soma and extensions of neurons, indicates functionality via volume transmission. Among the high percentage of 5-HT specific neurons (~ 42%), a subpopulation of CDH13 + cells presumably designates dorsal raphe neurons. hiPSC-derived 5-HT specific neuronal cell cultures reflect the heterogeneous nature of dorsal and median raphe nuclei and may facilitate examining the association of serotonergic neuron subpopulations with neuropsychiatric disorders.
KW  - neuropsychiatric disorders
KW  - human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)
KW  - serotonin-specific neurons
KW  - median and dorsal raphe
KW  - synapse formation
KW  - Cadherin-13 (CDH13)
Y1  - 2021
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-268519
SN  - 1435-1463
VL  - 128
IS  - 2
ER  - 
TY  - THES
A1  - Candemir, Esin
T1  - Involvement of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS-I) PDZ interactions in neuropsychiatric disorders
T1  - Der Einfluss von PDZ Interaktionen der neuronalen Stickstoffmonoxidsynthase (NOS-I) auf neuropsychiatrische Störungen
N2  - Neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS-I) and its adaptor protein (NOS1AP) have been repeatedly and consistently associated with neuropsychiatric disorders in several genetic association and linkage studies, as well as functional studies. NOS-I has an extended PDZ domain which enables it to interact with postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) bringing NOS-I in close proximity to NMDA receptors. This interaction allows NMDA receptor activity dependent calcium-influx to activate NOS-I, linking NO synthesis to regulation of glutamatergic signaling pathways. NOS1AP is a PDZ-domain ligand of NOS-I and has been proposed to compete with PSD-95 for NOS-I interaction. Studies performed on post-mortem brain tissues have shown increased expression of NOS1AP in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, suggesting that increased NOS-I/NOS1AP interactions might be involved in neuropsychiatric disorders possibly through disruption of NOS-I PDZ interactions. Therefore, I have investigated the involvement of NOS-I in different endophenotypes of neuropsychiatric disorders by targeting its specific PDZ interactions in vitro and in vivo. To this end, I used recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors expressing NOS1AP isoforms/domains (NOS1AP-L: full length NOS1AP; NOS1AP-LC20: the last 20 amino acids of NOS1AP-L, containing the PDZ interaction motif suggested to stabilize interaction with NOS-I; NOS1AP-LΔC20: NOS1AP-L lacking the last 20 amino acids; NOS1AP-S: the short isoform of NOS1AP), residues 396-503 of NOS1AP-L (NOS1AP396-503) encoding the full NOS-I interaction domain, and N-terminal 133 amino acids of NOS-I (NOS-I1-133) encoding for the extended PDZ-domain.
Neuropsychiatric disorders involve morphological brain changes including altered dendritic
development and spine plasticity. Hence, I have examined dendritic morphology in primary cultured hippocampal and cortical neurons upon overexpression of constructed rAAV vectors. Sholl analysis revealed that overexpression of NOS1AP-L and NOS1AP-LΔC20 mildly reduced dendritic length/branching. Moreover, overexpression of all NOS1AP isoforms/domains resulted in highly altered spine plasticity including significant reduction in the number of mature spines and increased growth of filopodia. These findings suggest that NOS1AP affects dendritic growth
and development of dendritic spines, which may involve both, increased NOS-I/NOS1AP interaction as well as interaction of NOS1AP with proteins other than NOS-I. Interestingly, the observed alterations in dendritic morphology were reminiscent of those observed in post-mortem brains of patients with neuropsychiatric disorders. 
Given the dendritic alterations in vitro, I have examined, whether disruption of NOS-I PDZ interaction would also result in behavioral deficits associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. To this end, rAAV vectors expressing NOS1AP-L, NOS1AP396-503, NOS-I1-133, and mCherry were stereotaxically delivered to the dorsal hippocampus of 6-week-old male C57Bl/6J mice. One week after surgery, mice were randomly separated into two groups. One of those groups underwent three weeks of chronic mild stress (CMS). Afterwards all mice were subjected to a comprehensive behavioral analysis. The findings revealed that overexpression of the constructs did not result in phenotypes related to anxiety or depression, though CMS had an anxiolytic effect independent of the injected construct. Mice overexpressing NOS-I1-133, previously shown to disrupt NOS-I/PSD-95 interaction, showed impaired spatial memory, sensorimotor gating, social interaction, and increased locomotor activity. NOS1AP overexpressing mice showed mild impairments in sensorimotor gating and spatial working memory and severely impaired social interaction. NOS1AP396-503 overexpressing mice also showed impaired social interaction but enhanced sensorimotor gating and reduced locomotor activity. Taken together, these behavioral findings indicate an involvement of NOS-I PDZ interactions in phenotypes associated with positive symptoms and cognitive deficits of psychotic disorders.
In summary, this study revealed an important contribution of NOS-I protein interactions in the development of endophenotypic traits of neuropsychiatric disorders, in particular schizophrenia,
at morphological and behavioral levels. These findings might eventually aid to a better
understanding of NOS-I-dependent psychopathogenesis, and to develop pharmacologically relevant treatment strategies.
N2  - Die neuronal Stickstoffmonoxid(NO)synthase (NOS-I) und deren Adapterprotein (NOS1AP) wurden in mehreren Genassoziations- und Genkopplungsstudien, sowie funktionellen Studien, wiederholt und konsistent mit neuropsychiatrischen Störungen assoziiert. NOS-I trägt eine erweiterte PDZ Domäne, die eine Interaktion mit postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) ermöglicht und es in die Nähe von NMDA Rezeptoren bringt. Diese Interaktion erlaubt es NMDA Rezeptoraktivitätsabhängigen Kalziumeinstrom NOS-I zu aktivieren, was die Synthese von NO an die Regulierung glutamaterger Signalwege koppelt. NOS1AP ist ein Ligand der NOS-I PDZ Domäne und NOS1AP kompetiert mit PSD-95 um die Bindung mit NOS-I. Post mortem Untersuchungen zeigten eine erhöhte Expression von NOS1AP im Gehirn von Patienten mit Schizophrenie und bipolarer Störung, was eine erhöhte NOS-I/NOS1AP Interaktion (was möglicherweise zu gestörter NOS-I PDZ Interaktion führt) mit neuropsychiatrischen Störungen verbindet. Daher habe ich den Einfluss von NOS-I auf Endophänotypen neuropsychiatrischer Störungen untersucht, indem ich spezifische PDZ Interaktionen von NOS-I in vitro und in vivo gestört habe. Dazu verwendete ich rekombinante Adenoassozierte virale (rAAV) Vektoren, die NOS1AP Isoformen/Domänen (NOS1AP-L: Volllänge NOS1AP; NOS1AP-LC20: Die letzten 20 Aminosäuren von NOS1AP-L, welche das PDZ Interaktionsmotiv enthalten, das zur Stabilisierung der Interaktion mit NOS-I beiträgt; NOS1AP-LΔC20: NOS1AP-L dessen letzte 20 Aminosäuren fehlen; NOS1AP-S: die Kurzform von NOS1AP), Aminosäurereste 396-503 von NOS1AP-L (NOS1AP396-503), welche die volle NOS-I Interaktionsdomäne kodieren, und die N-terminalen 133 Aminosäuren von NOS-I (NOS-I1-133), welche die erweiterte PDZ Domäne enthalten. 
Bei neuropsychiatrischen Störungen kommt es zu morphologischen Änderungen des Gehirns,
einschließlich veränderter dendritischer Entwicklung und Plastizität dendritischer Dornfortsätze
(‚spines‘). Daher habe ich die dendritische Morphologie in primär kultivierten Hippokampal- und Kortikalneuronen nach Überexpression der konstruierten rAAV Vektoren untersucht. Eine Sholl
Analyse ergab dabei, dass die Überexpression von NOS1AP-L und NOS1AP-LΔC20 die Länge und Anzahl dendritscher Verzweigungen leicht reduzierte. Zudem führte die Überexpression aller NOS1AP Isoformen/Domänen zu einer stark veränderten Plastizität dendritischer ‚spines‘, einschließlich einer signifikanten Reduktion der Anzahl ausgereifter ‚spines‘ und einem erhöhten Wachstum von Filopodien. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass NOS1AP einen Einfluss auf das dendritische Wachstum und die Entwicklung dendritischer ‚spines‘ hat, dem sowohl eine erhöhte NOS-I/NOS1AP Interaktion, sowie Interaktionen von NOS1AP mit anderen Proteinen zugrunde liegen könnten. Interessanterweise, ähnelten die beobachteten Veränderungen solchen, die in post mortem Gehirnen von Patienten mit neuropsychiatrischen Störungen beobachtet wurden. 
Aufgrund der Beobachtungen in vitro, habe ich untersucht, ob eine Störung der NOS-I PDZ
Interaktion auch zu Verhaltensdefiziten, die mit neuropsychiatrischen Störungen assoziiert sind,
führt. Zu diesem Zweck, wurden rAAV Vektoren, die NOS1AP-L, NOS1AP396-503, NOS-I1-133,und mCherry exprimieren, stereotaxisch in den dorsalen Hippokampus von sechs Wochen alten männlichen C57Bl/6J Mäusen injiziert. Eine Woche nach der Operation wurden die Mäuse zufällig in zwei Gruppen aufgeteilt. Eine dieser Gruppen wurde für drei Wochen dem ‚chronic mild stress‘(CMS) Paradigma unterzogen. Im Anschluss daran wurden alle Mäuse einer umfassenden Verhaltensanalyse unterzogen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Überexpression der Konstrukte nicht zu Angst- oder Depressionsassoziierten Phänotypen führten. Jedoch hatte das CMS Paradigma einen anxiolytischen Effekt, der unabhängig vom injizierten Konstrukt war. Eine Überexpression des NOS-I1-133 Konstruktes, von welchem zuvor eine Störung der NOS-I/PSD-95 Interaktion nachgewiesen wurde, führte zu Störungen des räumlichen Kurzzeitgedächtnisses, der Reaktionsunterdrückung (‚sensorimotor gating‘) und der sozialen Interaktion, sowie zu erhöhter lokomotorischer Aktivität. NOS1AP überexprimierende Mäuse zeigten leichte Störungen in der Reaktionsunterdrückung und des räumlichen Kurzzeitgedächtnisses, sowie erheblich gestörte soziale Interaktionen. NOS1AP396-503 überexprimierende Mäuse zeigten ebenfalls gestörte soziale Interaktion, jedoch eine erhöhte Reaktionsunterdrückung und verminderte lokomotorische Aktivität. Zusammengenommen, deuten diese Verhaltensuntersuchungen auf einen Beitrag der NOS-I PDZ Interaktionen zu Phänotypen, die mit positiven Symptomen und kognitiven Defiziten bei Psychosen assoziiert sind, hin.
Zusammengefasst konnte diese Studie einen wichtigen Beitrag der NOS-I Proteininteraktionen bei
der Entstehung endophenotypischer Züge (morphologisch sowie im Verhalten) neuropsychiatrischer Störungen, insbesondere der Schizophrenie, aufzeigen. Diese Erkenntnisse könnten zu einem besseren Verständnis NOS-I abhängiger Psychopathogenese, sowie zur Entwicklung relevanter pharmakologischer Behandlungsstrategien führen.
KW  - NOS-I
KW  - neuronal nitric oxide synthase
KW  - NOS1AP
KW  - neuropsychiatric disorders
KW  - neuronale Stickstoffmonoxidsynthase
KW  - neuropsychiatrische Störungen
KW  - Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase
KW  - Psychische Störung
Y1  - 2018
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-151194
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Hibar, Derrek P.
A1  - Adams, Hieab H.H.
A1  - Jahanshad, Neda
A1  - Chauhan, Ganesh
A1  - Stein, Jason L
A1  - Hofer, Edith
A1  - Renteria, Miguel E.
A1  - Bis, Joshua C.
A1  - Arias-Vasquez, Alejandro
A1  - Ikram, M. Kamran
A1  - Desrivières, Sylvane
A1  - Vernooij, Meike W.
A1  - Abramovic, Lucija
A1  - Alhusaini, Saud
A1  - Amin, Najaf
A1  - Andersson, Micael
A1  - Arfanakis, Konstantinos
A1  - Aribisala, Benjamin S.
A1  - Armstrong, Nicola J.
A1  - Athanasiu, Lavinia
A1  - Axelsson, Tomas
A1  - Beecham, Ashley H.
A1  - Beiser, Alexa
A1  - Bernard, Manon
A1  - Blanton, Susan H.
A1  - Bohlken, Marc M.
A1  - Boks, Marco P.
A1  - Bralten, Janita
A1  - Brickman, Adam M.
A1  - Carmichael, Owen
T1  - Novel genetic loci associated with hippocampal volume
JF  - Nature Communications
N2  - The hippocampal formation is a brain structure integrally involved in episodic memory, spatial navigation, cognition and stress responsiveness. Structural abnormalities in hippocampal volume and shape are found in several common neuropsychiatric disorders. To identify the genetic underpinnings of hippocampal structure here we perform a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 33,536 individuals and discover six independent loci significantly associated with hippocampal volume, four of them novel. Of the novel loci, three lie within genes (ASTN2, DPP4 and MAST4) and one is found 200 kb upstream of SHH. A hippocampal subfield analysis shows that a locus within the MSRB3 gene shows evidence of a localized effect along the dentate gyrus, subiculum, CA1 and fissure. Further, we show that genetic variants associated with decreased hippocampal volume are also associated with increased risk for Alzheimer’s disease (r\(_g\)=−0.155). Our findings suggest novel biological pathways through which human genetic variation influences hippocampal volume and risk for neuropsychiatric illness.
KW  - brain
KW  - hippocampal formation
KW  - neuropsychiatric disorders
KW  - Alzheimer’s disease
KW  - genetic loci
KW  - hippocampal volume
Y1  - 2017
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-182115
VL  - 8
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Davis, Lea K.
A1  - Yu, Dongmei
A1  - Keenan, Clare L.
A1  - Gamazon, Eric R.
A1  - Konkashbaev, Anuar I.
A1  - Derks, Eske M.
A1  - Neale, Benjamin M.
A1  - Yang, Jian
A1  - Lee, S. Hong
A1  - Evans, Patrick
A1  - Barr, Cathy L.
A1  - Bellodi, Laura
A1  - Benarroch, Fortu
A1  - Berrio, Gabriel Bedoya
A1  - Bienvenu, Oscar J.
A1  - Bloch, Michael H.
A1  - Blom, Rianne M.
A1  - Bruun, Ruth D.
A1  - Budman, Cathy L.
A1  - Camarena, Beatriz
A1  - Campbell, Desmond
A1  - Cappi, Carolina
A1  - Cardona Silgado, Julio C.
A1  - Cath, Danielle C.
A1  - Cavallini, Maria C.
A1  - Chavira, Denise A.
A1  - Chouinard, Sylvian
A1  - Conti, David V.
A1  - Cook, Edwin H.
A1  - Coric, Vladimir
A1  - Cullen, Bernadette A.
A1  - Deforce, Dieter
A1  - Delorme, Richard
A1  - Dion, Yves
A1  - Edlund, Christopher K.
A1  - Egberts, Karin
A1  - Falkai, Peter
A1  - Fernandez, Thomas V.
A1  - Gallagher, Patience J.
A1  - Garrido, Helena
A1  - Geller, Daniel
A1  - Girard, Simon L.
A1  - Grabe, Hans J.
A1  - Grados, Marco A.
A1  - Greenberg, Benjamin D.
A1  - Gross-Tsur, Varda
A1  - Haddad, Stephen
A1  - Heiman, Gary A.
A1  - Hemmings, Sian M. J.
A1  - Hounie, Ana G.
A1  - Illmann, Cornelia
A1  - Jankovic, Joseph
A1  - Jenike, Micheal A.
A1  - Kennedy, James L.
A1  - King, Robert A.
A1  - Kremeyer, Barbara
A1  - Kurlan, Roger
A1  - Lanzagorta, Nuria
A1  - Leboyer, Marion
A1  - Leckman, James F.
A1  - Lennertz, Leonhard
A1  - Liu, Chunyu
A1  - Lochner, Christine
A1  - Lowe, Thomas L.
A1  - Macciardi, Fabio
A1  - McCracken, James T.
A1  - McGrath, Lauren M.
A1  - Restrepo, Sandra C. Mesa
A1  - Moessner, Rainald
A1  - Morgan, Jubel
A1  - Muller, Heike
A1  - Murphy, Dennis L.
A1  - Naarden, Allan L.
A1  - Ochoa, William Cornejo
A1  - Ophoff, Roel A.
A1  - Osiecki, Lisa
A1  - Pakstis, Andrew J.
A1  - Pato, Michele T.
A1  - Pato, Carlos N.
A1  - Piacentini, John
A1  - Pittenger, Christopher
A1  - Pollak, Yehunda
A1  - Rauch, Scott L.
A1  - Renner, Tobias J.
A1  - Reus, Victor I.
A1  - Richter, Margaret A.
A1  - Riddle, Mark A.
A1  - Robertson, Mary M.
A1  - Romero, Roxana
A1  - Rosàrio, Maria C.
A1  - Rosenberg, David
A1  - Rouleau, Guy A.
A1  - Ruhrmann, Stephan
A1  - Ruiz-Linares, Andreas
A1  - Sampaio, Aline S.
A1  - Samuels, Jack
A1  - Sandor, Paul
A1  - Sheppard, Broke
A1  - Singer, Harvey S.
A1  - Smit, Jan H.
A1  - Stein, Dan J.
A1  - Strengman, E.
A1  - Tischfield, Jay A.
A1  - Valencia Duarte, Ana V.
A1  - Vallada, Homero
A1  - Van Nieuwerburgh, Flip
A1  - Veenstra-VanderWeele, Jeremy
A1  - Walitza, Susanne
A1  - Wang, Ying
A1  - Wendland, Jens R.
A1  - Westenberg, Herman G. M.
A1  - Shugart, Yin Yao
A1  - Miguel, Euripedes C.
A1  - McMahon, William
A1  - Wagner, Michael
A1  - Nicolini, Humberto
A1  - Posthuma, Danielle
A1  - Hanna, Gregory L.
A1  - Heutink, Peter
A1  - Denys, Damiaan
A1  - Arnold, Paul D.
A1  - Oostra, Ben A.
A1  - Nestadt, Gerald
A1  - Freimer, Nelson B.
A1  - Pauls, David L.
A1  - Wray, Naomi R.
A1  - Stewart, S. Evelyn
A1  - Mathews, Carol A.
A1  - Knowles, James A.
A1  - Cox, Nancy J.
A1  - Scharf, Jeremiah M.
T1  - Partitioning the Heritability of Tourette Syndrome and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Reveals Differences in Genetic Architecture
JF  - PLoS Genetics
N2  - The direct estimation of heritability from genome-wide common variant data as implemented in the program Genome-wide Complex Trait Analysis (GCTA) has provided a means to quantify heritability attributable to all interrogated variants. We have quantified the variance in liability to disease explained by all SNPs for two phenotypically-related neurobehavioral disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette Syndrome (TS), using GCTA. Our analysis yielded a heritability point estimate of 0.58 (se = 0.09, p = 5.64e-12) for TS, and 0.37 (se = 0.07, p = 1.5e-07) for OCD. In addition, we conducted multiple genomic partitioning analyses to identify genomic elements that concentrate this heritability. We examined genomic architectures of TS and OCD by chromosome, MAF bin, and functional annotations. In addition, we assessed heritability for early onset and adult onset OCD. Among other notable results, we found that SNPs with a minor allele frequency of less than 5% accounted for 21% of the TS heritability and 0% of the OCD heritability. Additionally, we identified a significant contribution to TS and OCD heritability by variants significantly associated with gene expression in two regions of the brain (parietal cortex and cerebellum) for which we had available expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). Finally we analyzed the genetic correlation between TS and OCD, revealing a genetic correlation of 0.41 (se = 0.15, p = 0.002). These results are very close to previous heritability estimates for TS and OCD based on twin and family studies, suggesting that very little, if any, heritability is truly missing (i.e., unassayed) from TS and OCD GWAS studies of common variation. The results also indicate that there is some genetic overlap between these two phenotypically-related neuropsychiatric disorders, but suggest that the two disorders have distinct genetic architectures.
KW  - TIC disorders
KW  - missing heritability
KW  - complex diseases
KW  - neuropsychiatric disorders
KW  - common SNPS
KW  - gilles
KW  - family
KW  - brain
KW  - expression
KW  - autism
Y1  - 2013
U6  - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-127377
SN  - 1553-7390
VL  - 9
IS  - 10
ER  -