TY - JOUR A1 - Robinson, Thomas M. A1 - Hutmacher, Dietmar W. A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - The next frontier in melt electrospinning: taming the jet JF - Advanced Functional Materials N2 - There is a specialized niche for the electrohydrodynamic jetting of melts, from biomedical products to filtration and soft matter applications. The next frontier includes optics, microfluidics, flexible electronic devices, and soft network composites in biomaterial science and soft robotics. The recent emphasis on reproducibly direct‐writing continual molten jets has enabled a spectrum of contemporary microscale 3D objects to be fabricated. One strong suit of melt processing is the capacity for the jet to solidify rapidly into a fiber, thus fixing a particular structure into position. The ability to direct‐write complex and multiscaled architectures and structures has greatly contributed to a large number of recent studies, explicitly, toward fiber–hydrogel composites and fugitive inks, and has expanded into several biomedical applications such as cartilage, skin, periosteum, and cardiovascular tissue engineering. Following the footsteps of a publication that summarized melt electrowriting literature up to 2015, the most recent literature from then until now is reviewed to provide a continuous and comprehensive timeline that demonstrates the latest advances as well as new perspectives for this emerging technology. KW - 3D printing KW - additive manufacturing KW - eletrhydrodynamic KW - melt electrospinning writing Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-204819 VL - 29 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Liashenko, Ievgenii A1 - Hrynevich, Andrei A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - Designing Outside the Box: Unlocking the Geometric Freedom of Melt Electrowriting using Microscale Layer Shifting JF - Advanced Materials N2 - Melt electrowriting, a high‐resolution additive manufacturing technology, has so far been developed with vertical stacking of fiber layers, with a printing trajectory that is constant for each layer. In this work, microscale layer shifting is introduced through deliberately offsetting the printing trajectory for each printed layer. Inaccuracies during the printing of sinusoidal walls are corrected via layer shifting, resulting in accurate control of their geometry and mechanical properties. Furthermore, more substantial layer shifting allows stacking of fiber layers in a horizontal manner, overcoming the electrostatic autofocusing effect that favors vertical layer stacking. Novel nonlinear geometries, such as overhangs, wall texturing and branching, and smooth and abrupt changes in printing trajectory are presented, demonstrating the flexibility of the layer shifting approach beyond the state‐of‐the‐art. The practice of microscale layer shifting for melt electrowriting enables more complex geometries that promise to have a profound impact on the development of products in a broad range of applications. KW - 3D printing KW - additive manufacturing KW - biomaterials KW - electrohydrodynamics KW - melt electrospinning writing Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-217974 VL - 32 IS - 28 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kade, Juliane C. A1 - Tandon, Biranche A1 - Weichhold, Jan A1 - Pisignano, Dario A1 - Persano, Luana A1 - Luxenhofer, Robert A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - Melt electrowriting of poly(vinylidene fluoride‐co‐trifluoroethylene) JF - Polymer International N2 - Poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-co-TrFE)) is an electroactive polymer with growing interest for applications in biomedical materials and flexible electronics. In this study, a solvent-free additive manufacturing technique called melt electrowriting (MEW) has been utilized to fabricate well-defined microperiodic structures of the copolymer (P(VDF-co-TrFE)). MEW of the highly viscous polymer melt was initiated using a heated collector at temperatures above 120 °C and required remarkably slow collector speeds below 100 mm min\(^{-1}\). The fiber surface morphology was affected by the collector speed and an increase in β-phase was observed for scaffolds compared to the unprocessed powder. Videography shows vibrations of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) jet previously unseen during MEW, probably due to repeated charge buildup and discharge. Furthermore, piezo-force microscopy measurements demonstrated the electromechanical response of MEW-fabricated fibers. This research therefore achieves the melt electrohydrodynamic processing of fibers with micrometer resolution into defined structures with an important electroactive polymer. KW - polymer processing KW - additive manufacturing KW - electrohydrodynamic KW - electroactive Y1 - 2021 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-257654 VL - 70 IS - 12 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kade, Juliane C. A1 - Otto, Paul F. A1 - Luxenhofer, Robert A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - Melt electrowriting of poly(vinylidene difluoride) using a heated collector JF - Polymers for Advanced Technologies N2 - Previous research on the melt electrowriting (MEW) of poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) resulted in electroactive fibers, however, printing more than five layers is challenging. Here, we investigate the influence of a heated collector to adjust the solidification rate of the PVDF jet so that it adheres sufficiently to each layer. A collector temperature of 110°C is required to improve fiber processing, resulting in a total of 20 fiber layers. For higher temperatures and higher layers, an interesting phenomenon occurred, where the intersection points of the fibers coalesced into periodic spheres of diameter 206 ± 52 μm (26G, 150°C collector temperature, 2000 mm/min, 10 layers in x- and y-direction).The heated collector is an important component of a MEW printer that allows polymers with a high melting point to be processable with increased layers. KW - additive manufacturing KW - polymer processing KW - melt electrowriting KW - electroactive Y1 - 2021 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318493 SN - 1042-7147 VL - 32 IS - 12 SP - 4951 EP - 4955 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kade, Juliane C. A1 - Bakirci, Ezgi A1 - Tandon, Biranche A1 - Gorgol, Danila A1 - Mrlik, Miroslav A1 - Luxenhofer, Robert A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - The Impact of Including Carbonyl Iron Particles on the Melt Electrowriting Process JF - Macromolecular Materials and Engineering N2 - Melt electrowriting, a high-resolution additive manufacturing technique, is used in this study to process a magnetic polymer-based blend for the first time. Carbonyl iron (CI) particles homogenously distribute into poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) melts to result in well-defined, highly porous structures or scaffolds comprised of fibers ranging from 30 to 50 µm in diameter. This study observes that CI particle incorporation is possible up to 30 wt% without nozzle clogging, albeit that the highest concentration results in heterogeneous fiber morphologies. In contrast, the direct writing of homogeneous PVDF fibers with up to 15 wt% CI is possible. The fibers can be readily displaced using magnets at concentrations of 1 wt% and above. Combined with good viability of L929 CC1 cells using Live/Dead imaging on scaffolds for all CI concentrations indicates that these formulations have potential for the usage in stimuli-responsive applications such as 4D printing. KW - additive manufacturing KW - melt electrospinning writing KW - magnetoactive materials KW - electroactive polymers Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318482 SN - 1438-7492 VL - 307 IS - 12 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Böhm, Christoph A1 - Tandon, Biranche A1 - Hrynevich, Andrei A1 - Teßmar, Jörg A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - Processing of Poly(lactic–co–glycolic acid) Microfibers via Melt Electrowriting JF - Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics N2 - Polymers sensitive to thermal degradation include poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), which is not yet processed via melt electrowriting (MEW). After an initial period of instability where mean fiber diameters increase from 20.56 to 27.37 µm in 3.5 h, processing stabilizes through to 24 h. The jet speed, determined using critical translation speed measurements, also reduces slightly in this 3.5 h period from 500 to 433 mm min\(^{−1}\) but generally remains constant. Acetyl triethyl citrate (ATEC) as an additive decreases the glass transition temperature of PLGA from 49 to 4 °C, and the printed ATEC/PLGA fibers exhibits elastomeric behavior upon handling. Fiber bundles tested in cyclic mechanical testing display increased elasticity with increasing ATEC concentration. The processing temperature of PLGA also reduces from 165 to 143 °C with increase in ATEC concentration. This initial window of unstable direct writing seen with neat PLGA can also be impacted through the addition of 10-wt% ATEC, producing fiber diameters of 14.13 ± 1.69 µm for the first 3.5 h of heating. The investigation shows that the initial changes to the PLGA direct-writing outcomes seen in the first 3.5 h are temporary and that longer times result in a more stable MEW process. KW - poly(lactide-co-glycolide) KW - 3D printing KW - additive manufacturing KW - electrohydrodynamics KW - melt electrospinning writing KW - plasticizers Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318444 VL - 223 IS - 5 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Böhm, Christoph A1 - Stahlhut, Philipp A1 - Weichhold, Jan A1 - Hrynevich, Andrei A1 - Teßmar, Jörg A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - The Multiweek Thermal Stability of Medical-Grade Poly(ε-caprolactone) During Melt Electrowriting JF - Small N2 - Melt electrowriting (MEW) is a high-resolution additive manufacturing technology that places unique constraints on the processing of thermally degradable polymers. With a single nozzle, MEW operates at low throughput and in this study, medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is heated for 25 d at three different temperatures (75, 85, and 95 °C), collecting daily samples. There is an initial increase in the fiber diameter and decrease in the jet speed over the first 5 d, then the MEW process remains stable for the 75 and 85 °C groups. When the collector speed is fixed to a value at least 10% above the jet speed, the diameter remains constant for 25 d at 75 °C and only increases with time for 85 and 95 °C. Fiber fusion at increased layer height is observed for 85 and 95 °C, while the surface morphology of single fibers remain similar for all temperatures. The properties of the prints are assessed with no observable changes in the degree of crystallinity or the Young's modulus, while the yield strength decreases in later phases only for 95 °C. After the initial 5-d period, the MEW processing of PCL at 75 °C is extraordinarily stable with overall fiber diameters averaging 13.5 ± 1.0 µm over the entire 25-d period. KW - polycaprolactone KW - 3D printing KW - additive manufacturing KW - electrohydrodynamic KW - melt electrospinning writing Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-257741 VL - 18 IS - 3 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Bakirci, Ezgi A1 - Frank, Andreas A1 - Gumbel, Simon A1 - Otto, Paul F. A1 - Fürsattel, Eva A1 - Tessmer, Ingrid A1 - Schmidt, Hans‐Werner A1 - Dalton, Paul D. T1 - Melt Electrowriting of Amphiphilic Physically Crosslinked Segmented Copolymers JF - Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics N2 - Various (AB)\(_{n}\) and (ABAC)\(_{n}\) segmented copolymers with hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments are processed via melt electrowriting (MEW). Two different (AB)\(_{n}\) segmented copolymers composed of bisurea segments and hydrophobic poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS) or hydrophilic poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) (PPO-PEG-PPO) segments, while the amphiphilic (ABAC)\(_{n}\) segmented copolymers consist of bisurea segments in the combination of hydrophobic PDMS segments and hydrophilic PPO-PEG-PPO segments with different ratios, are explored. All copolymer compositions are processed using the same conditions, including nozzle temperature, applied voltage, and collector distance, while changes in applied pressure and collector speed altered the fiber diameter in the range of 7 and 60 µm. All copolymers showed excellent processability with MEW, well-controlled fiber stacking, and inter-layer bonding. Notably, the surfaces of all four copolymer fibers are very smooth when visualized using scanning electron microscopy. However, the fibers show different roughness demonstrated with atomic force microscopy. The non-cytotoxic copolymers increased L929 fibroblast attachment with increasing PDMS content while the different copolymer compositions result in a spectrum of physical properties. KW - melt electrowriting KW - 3D printing KW - additive manufacturing KW - electrohydrodynamics Y1 - 2021 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-257572 VL - 222 IS - 22 ER -