TY - THES A1 - Albert-Weißenberger, Christiane T1 - Regulation of the Flagellar Biogenesis in Legionella pneumophila T1 - Die Regulation der Flagellenbiogenese in Legionella pneumophila N2 - The bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila replicates intracellularly in protozoa, but can also cause severe pneumonia, called Legionnaires' disease. The bacteria invade and proliferate in the alveolar macrophages of the human lung. L. pneumophila bacteria exhibit a biphasic life cycle: replicative bacteria are avirulent; in contrast, transmissive bacteria express virulence traits and flagella. Primarily aim of this thesis was to evaluate the impact of the regulatory proteins FleQ, FleR, and RpoN in flagellar gene regulation. Phenotypic analysis, Western blot and electron microscopy of regulatory mutants in the genes coding for FleQ, RpoN and FleR demonstrated that flagellin expression is strongly repressed and that these mutants are non-flagellated in transmissive phase. Transcriptomic studies of these putative flagellar gene expression regulators demonstrated that fleQ controls the expression of numerous flagellar biosynthetic genes. Together with RpoN, FleQ controls transcription of 14 out of 31 flagellar class II genes, coding for the basal body, hook, and regulatory proteins. Unexpectedly, 7 out of 15 late flagellar genes class III and IV) are expressed dependent on FleQ but independent of RpoN. Thus, in contrast to the commonly accepted view that enhancer binding proteins as FleQ always interact with RpoN to initiate transcription, our results strongly indicate that FleQ of L. pneumophila regulates gene expression RpoN-dependent as well as RpoN-independent. Moreover, transcriptome analysis of a fleR mutant strain elucidated that FleR does not regulate the flagellar class III genes as previously suggested. Instead FleR regulates together with RpoN numerous protein biosynthesis and metabolic genes. Based on these experimental results our modified model for the transcriptional regulation of flagellar genes in L. pneumophila is that flagellar class II genes are controlled by FleQ and RpoN, while flagellar class III and IV genes are controlled in a fleQ-dependent but rpoN-independent manner. Although all L. pneumophila strains share the same complex life style, various pathotypes have evolved. This is reflected by the genomes, which contain e.g. genomic islands. The genomic island Trb-1 of L. pneumophila Corby, carries all genes necessary for a type-IV conjugation system, an integrase gene and a putative oriT site. The second aim of this thesis was to investigate the implication of this genomic island in conjugative DNA transfer. Using conjugation assays we showed that the oriT site located on Trb-1 is functional and contributes to conjugation between different L. pneumophila strains. As this is the first oriT site of L. pneumophila known to be functional our results provide evidence that conjugation is a major mechanism for the evolution of new pathotypes in L. pneumophila. N2 - Das pathogene Bakterium Legionella pneumophila repliziert sich in der Natur intrazellulär in Protozoen. Beim Menschen kann das Bakterium eine schwere Pneumonie, die sogenannte Legionärskrankheit auslösen. Hierbei vermehren sich die Bakterien in Alveolarmakrophagen der Lunge. Der Lebenszyklus von L. pneumophila Bakterien ist gekennzeichnet durch zwei Phase: replikative Bakterien sind avirulent; im Gegensatz dazu sind transmissive Bakterien virulent und flagelliert. Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es die Beteiligung der regulatorischen Proteins FleQ, FleR, and RpoN an der Flagellengenregulation zu ermitteln. Mutanten für die Gene welche für FleQ, FleR oder RpoN codieren exprimieren in der transmissiven Phase im Genesatz zum Wildtyp nur wenig Flagellin und sind nicht flagelliert. Nachgewiesen wurde dies durch eine phänotypische Analyse, Western blot und Ektronenmikroskopie. Studien des Transkripoms dieser Mutanten zeigten, daß FleQ die Expression zahlreicher Flagellenbiosynthesegenen kontrolliert. Gemeinsam mit RpoN kontrolliert FleQ die Transkription von 14 der 31 Klasse II Flagellengene, welche für Basalkörper, Haken und regulatorische Proteine codieren. Überraschenderweise sind 7 der 15 späten Flagellengenen (Klasse III und IV) abhängig von FleQ, aber unabhängig von RpoN exprimiert. Daher und entgegen der allgemeinen Auffassung dass sogenannte ‚enhancer binding' Proteine wie FleQ zur Transkriptionsinitiation immer mit RpoN interagieren, deuten unsere Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass FleQ von L. pneumophila Genexpression sowohl RpoN-abhängig, als auch RpoN-unabhängig reguliert. Ebenso anders als zuvor vorgeschlagen, verdeutlichen Studien des Transkriptoms einer fleR Mutante, dass FleR nicht die Expression der Klasse III Flagellengene induziert. Statt dessen reguliert FleR gemeinsam mit RpoN zahlreiche Gene der Proteinbiosynthese und des Metabolismus. Basierend auf diesen experimentellen Ergebnissen sind in unserem modifizierten Modell für die transkriptionelle Regulation der L. pneumophila Flagellengene die Flagellengene der Klasse II von FleQ und RpoN kontrolliert, während die Flagellengene der Klasse III und IV in einer fleQ-abhängigen aber rpoN-unabhängigen Weise kontrolliert sind. Obwohl alle L. pneumophila Stämme den zweiphasigen Lebenszyklus aufweisen haben sich unterschiedliche Pathotypen evolviert. Das ist auch in den Genomen sichtbar, die z. B. genomische Inseln enthalten. Die genomische Insel Trb-1 von L. pneumophila Corby trägt alle Gene eines Typ-IV Konjugationssystem, ein ntegrase-Gen und einen putative oriT-Bereich. Das zweite Ziel dieser Arbeit war es also zu untersuchen, inwieweit Trb-1 an konjugativem DNA-Transfer beteiligt ist. Mit Hilfe von Konjugationsexperimenten, zeigten wir, dass der oriT-Bereich von Trb-1 funktional ist und zur Konjugation zwischen verschiedenen L. pneumophila Stämmen beiträgt. Dies ist der erste oriT Bereich von L. pneumophila, dessen Funktionalität nachgewiesen wurde. Damit bekräftigen unsere Ergebnisse, dass Konjugation eine treibende Kraft für die Evolution neuer Pathotypen in L. pneumophila ist. KW - Legionella pneumophila KW - Genregulation KW - Legionella pneumophila KW - gene regulation Y1 - 2009 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-34335 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Amich, Jorge A1 - Schafferer, Lukas A1 - Haas, Hubertus A1 - Krappmann, Sven T1 - Regulation of Sulphur Assimilation Is Essential for Virulence and Affects Iron Homeostasis of the Human-Pathogenic Mould Aspergillus fumigatus JF - PLoS Pathogens N2 - Abstract Sulphur is an essential element that all pathogens have to absorb from their surroundings in order to grow inside their infected host. Despite its importance, the relevance of sulphur assimilation in fungal virulence is largely unexplored. Here we report a role of the bZIP transcription factor MetR in sulphur assimilation and virulence of the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. The MetR regulator is essential for growth on a variety of sulphur sources; remarkably, it is fundamental for assimilation of inorganic S-sources but dispensable for utilization of methionine. Accordingly, it strongly supports expression of genes directly related to inorganic sulphur assimilation but not of genes connected to methionine metabolism. On a broader scale, MetR orchestrates the comprehensive transcriptional adaptation to sulphur-starving conditions as demonstrated by digital gene expression analysis. Surprisingly, A. fumigatus is able to utilize volatile sulphur compounds produced by its methionine catabolism, a process that has not been described before and that is MetR-dependent. The A. fumigatus MetR transcriptional activator is important for virulence in both leukopenic mice and an alternative mini-host model of aspergillosis, as it was essential for the development of pulmonary aspergillosis and supported the systemic dissemination of the fungus. MetR action under sulphur-starving conditions is further required for proper iron regulation, which links regulation of sulphur metabolism to iron homeostasis and demonstrates an unprecedented regulatory crosstalk. Taken together, this study provides evidence that regulation of sulphur assimilation is not only crucial for A. fumigatus virulence but also affects the balance of iron in this prime opportunistic pathogen. Author Summary Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is a life-threatening disease that affects primarily immunosuppressed patients. During the last decades the incidence of this disease that is accompanied by high mortality rates has increased. Since opportunistic pathogenic fungi, unlike other pathogens, do not express specific virulence factors, it is becoming more and more clear that the elucidation of fungal metabolism is an essential task to understand fungal pathogenicity and to identify novel antifungal targets. In this work we report genetic inactivation of the sulphur transcription regulator MetR in Aspergillus fumigatus and subsequent study of the resulting phenotypes and transcriptional deregulation of the mutant. Here we show that regulation of sulphur assimilation is an essential process for the manifestation of IPA. Moreover, a regulatory connection between sulphur metabolism and iron homeostasis, a further essential virulence determinant of A. fumigatus, is demonstrated in this study for the first time. A deeper knowledge of sulphur metabolism holds the promise of increasing our understanding of fungal virulence and might lead to improved antifungal therapy. KW - gene regulation KW - transcription factors KW - DNA transcription KW - aspergillus fumigatus KW - methionine KW - sulfur KW - fungal pathogens KW - sulfates Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-130372 VL - 9 IS - 8 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Böhm, Lena A1 - Torsin, Sanda A1 - Tint, Su Hlaing A1 - Eckstein, Marie Therese A1 - Ludwig, Tobias A1 - Pérez, J. Christian T1 - The yeast form of the fungus Candida albicans promotes persistence in the gut of gnotobiotic mice JF - PLoS Pathogens N2 - Many microorganisms that cause systemic, life-threatening infections in humans reside as harmless commensals in our digestive tract. Yet little is known about the biology of these microbes in the gut. Here, we visualize the interface between the human commensal and pathogenic fungus Candida albicans and the intestine of mice, a surrogate host. Because the indigenous mouse microbiota restricts C. albicans settlement, we compared the patterns of colonization in the gut of germ free and antibiotic-treated conventionally raised mice. In contrast to the heterogeneous morphologies found in the latter, we establish that in germ free animals the fungus almost uniformly adopts the yeast cell form, a proxy of its commensal state. By screening a collection of C. albicans transcription regulator deletion mutants in gnotobiotic mice, we identify several genes previously unknown to contribute to in vivo fitness. We investigate three of these regulators—ZCF8, ZFU2 and TRY4—and show that indeed they favor the yeast form over other morphologies. Consistent with this finding, we demonstrate that genetically inducing non-yeast cell morphologies is detrimental to the fitness of C. albicans in the gut. Furthermore, the identified regulators promote adherence of the fungus to a surface covered with mucin and to mucus-producing intestinal epithelial cells. In agreement with this result, histology sections indicate that C. albicans dwells in the murine gut in close proximity to the mucus layer. Thus, our findings reveal a set of regulators that endows C. albicans with the ability to endure in the intestine through multiple mechanisms. KW - Candida albicans KW - deletion mutagenesis KW - gastrointestinal tract KW - fungi KW - regulator genes KW - gene regulation KW - mouse models KW - fungal genetics Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-159120 VL - 13 IS - 10 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dimastrogiovanni, Daniela A1 - Fröhlich, Kathrin S. A1 - Bandyra, Katarzyna J. A1 - Bruce, Heather A. A1 - Hohensee, Susann A1 - Vogel, Jörg A1 - Luisi, Ben F. T1 - Recognition of the small regulatory RNA RydC by the bacterial Hfq protein JF - eLife N2 - Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) are key elements of regulatory networks that modulate gene expression. The sRNA RydC of Salmonella sp. and Escherichia coli is an example of this class of riboregulators. Like many other sRNAs, RydC bears a 'seed' region that recognises specific transcripts through base-pairing, and its activities are facilitated by the RNA chaperone Hfq. The crystal structure of RydC in complex with E. coli Hfq at 3.48 angstrom resolution illuminates how the protein interacts with and presents the sRNA for target recognition. Consolidating the protein-RNA complex is a host of distributed interactions mediated by the natively unstructured termini of Hfq. Based on the structure and other data, we propose a model for a dynamic effector complex comprising Hfq, small RNA, and the cognate mRNA target. KW - Hfq KW - small RNA KW - natively unstructured protein KW - protein-RNA recognition KW - gene regulation KW - Escherichia coli-Hfq KW - SM-like protein KW - messenger-RNA KW - chaperone Hfq KW - target recognition KW - noncoding RNAs KW - interaction surfaces KW - crystal-structures KW - soluble-RNAs KW - C-Terminus Y1 - 2014 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-114191 SN - 2050-084X VL - 3 IS - e05375 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Gaubatz, Stefan A1 - Esterlechner, Jasmina A1 - Reichert, Nina A1 - Iltzsche, Fabian A1 - Krause, Michael A1 - Finkernagel, Florian T1 - LIN9, a Subunit of the DREAM Complex, Regulates Mitotic Gene Expression and Proliferation of Embryonic Stem Cells JF - PLoS ONE N2 - The DREAM complex plays an important role in regulation of gene expression during the cell cycle. We have previously shown that the DREAM subunit LIN9 is required for early embryonic development and for the maintenance of the inner cell mass in vitro. In this study we examined the effect of knocking down LIN9 on ESCs. We demonstrate that depletion of LIN9 alters the cell cycle distribution of ESCs and results in an accumulation of cells in G2 and M and in an increase of polyploid cells. Genome-wide expression studies showed that the depletion of LIN9 results in downregulation of mitotic genes and in upregulation of differentiation-specific genes. ChIP-on chip experiments showed that mitotic genes are direct targets of LIN9 while lineage specific markers are regulated indirectly. Importantly, depletion of LIN9 does not alter the expression of pluripotency markers SOX2, OCT4 and Nanog and LIN9 depleted ESCs retain alkaline phosphatase activity. We conclude that LIN9 is essential for proliferation and genome stability of ESCs by activating genes with important functions in mitosis and cytokinesis. KW - cell cycle KW - cell division KW - cell differentation KW - DNA-binding proteins KW - gene expression KW - gene regulation KW - gene targeting KW - microarrays KW - pluripotency Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-96922 ER - TY - THES A1 - Horvat, Aleksandra T1 - Untersuchungen zur Signalwahrnehmung der Sensorkinase BvgS des BvgAS-Zwei-Komponentensystems aus Bordetella bronchiseptica und Struktur-Funktionsanalyse des Response Regulator-Proteins BvgA aus Bordetella holmesii T1 - Characterisation of signal perception of the BvgS sensorkinase of Bordetella bronchiseptica and molecular characterisation of the BvgA response regulator of Bordetella holmesii N2 - Die Histidin-Kinase BvgS des BvgAS-Zwei-Komponentensystems gehört zu den unorthodoxen Histidin-Kinasen, die im Gegensatz zu den klassischen Sensorkinasen durch eine komplexere Domänen-Struktur gekennzeichnet ist. Schon seit längerem ist bekannt, dass BvgS durch niedrige Temperaturen oder die Anwesenheit von chemischen Substanzen, wie Sulfationen oder Nikotinsäure inaktiviert wird. Zudem konnte in vitro gezeigt werden, dass die Autophosphorylierungs-Aktivität der BvgS Histidin-Kinase nach Inkubation mit oxidiertem Ubichinon inhibiert wird (Bock & Gross, 2002). Bislang ist weitgehend unklar, welche Bedeutung die zusätzlichen Domänen, wie die periplasmatische-, PAS- bzw. HPt-Domäne für die Signalwahrnehmung besitzen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde deshalb nach Erstellung einer B. bronchiseptica spezifischen Genbank mit Hilfe des GAL4-Yeast Two-Hybrid (YTH) Systems nach Interaktionspartnern der einzelnen BvgS-Domänen gesucht. Nach dem Ausschluss von falsch-positiven Klonen und dem Durchlauf entsprechender Kontrollen konnten im YTH-System für die periplasmatische und die PAS-Domäne von BvgS insgesamt vier Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden. Für die HPt-Domäne konnte mit Hilfe des YTH-Systems kein möglicher Interaktionspartner gefunden werden. Als ein putativer Interaktionspartner der BvgS-PAS-Domäne wurde das BB0602-Protein identifiziert, das ein ATP-Bindeprotein darstellt, welches als Bestandteil eines ABC-Transport-System für den Transport von verzweigten Aminosäuren verantwortlich gemacht wird. Diese Interaktion konnte mittels eines GST-Pulldownassays bestätigt werden. Der biochemische Nachweis der übrigen identifizierten Protein-Interaktionen konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nicht erbracht werden. Die Ergebnisse des YTH-Screenings deuten darauf hin, dass die Aktivität der BvgS Histidin-Kinase und damit die Virulenzgenexpression durch die An- bzw. Abwesenheit von verzweigten Aminosäuren beeinflusst werden könnte. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte die Relevanz der Interaktion zwischen der PAS-Domäne und dem ATP-Bindeprotein BB0602 nicht näher charakterisiert werden, so dass in Zukunft unter anderem die Konstruktion einer B. bronschiseptica bb0602-Deletionsmutante geplant ist, um somit mögliche Auswirkungen auf die Expression von bvg-abhängigen Genen zu beobachten. Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit lag in der Struktur-Funktionsanalyse des Response Regulators BvgA aus B. holmesii (BvgABH). Kürzlich konnte gezeigt werden, dass trotz der umfangreichen Sequenzkonservierung der BvgA-Proteine aus B. holmesii und B. pertussis, eine B. pertussis bvgA-Mutante nicht durch den bvgA-Lokus aus B. holmesii komplementiert werden konnte (Gerlach et al., 2004). Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein hybrider Response Regulator BvgAfus konstruiert, der aus der Receiver- und Linker-Domäne des BvgABH-Proteins und der Output-Domäne von BvgABP zusammengesetzt ist. Voraussetzung hierfür war die Kenntnis der einzelnen Domänengrenzen und die Sequenz des Linker-Bereiches des Response Regulators BvgA aus B. pertussis (BvgABP), welche durch limitierte Proteolyse und massenspektrometrische Methoden identifiziert wurden (Bantscheff et al., 2000). Im Falle des hybriden Proteins konnte im Gegensatz zu BvgABH eine Bindung an BvgABP-abhängige Promotorsequenzen beobachtet werden. Zudem war BvgAfus in der Lage, die Expression BvgABP-abhängiger Gene in vivo zu induzieren. Allerdings war es in seiner Phosphorylierungseffizienz im Vergleich zum wildtypischen Response Regulator-Protein aus B. holmesii eingeschränkt. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die wenigen Abweichungen zwischen den Aminosäuresequenzen der Output-Domänen dafür verantwortlich sind, dass das BvgABH-Protein die Funktion von BvgABP in vivo und in vitro nicht übernehmen kann. So unterscheiden sich die Output-Domänen der Response Regulatoren aus B. pertussis und B. holmesii in zehn Aminosäureaustauschen, wobei davon vier Aminosäuren innerhalb des Helix-Turn-Helix-Motives verändert sind. Um zu untersuchen, ob die unterschiedlichen DNA-Binde- und transkriptionsaktivierenden Eigenschaften von BvgABH im Besonderen auf diese Aminosäureunterschiede zurückzuführen sind, wurden mittels ortspezifischer Mutagenese die Aminosäuresequenz innerhalb des Helix-Turn-Helix-Motives an die Sequenz aus B. pertussis angeglichen. Das resultierende Protein BvgABH* zeigte eine dem wildtypischen BvgABH-Protein ähnliche Phosphorylierungseffizienz, war aber nicht in der Lage, BvgABP-abhängige Zielsequenzen spezifisch zu erkennen bzw. die Funktion des BvgABP-Proteins in vivo zu ersetzen. Dieses Ergebnis lässt vermuten, dass die wenigen Aminosäureunterschiede der Output-Domäne außerhalb der DNA-Binderegion zwar nicht im Zusammenhang mit der Phosphorylierungseffizienz stehen, jedoch die DNA-Bindeeigenschaften beeinflussen. N2 - The BvgS protein of the BvgAS two-component system belongs to the family of unorthodox histidine-kinases, which are characterized by a more complex domain-structure compared to the classical sensor proteins. Since a long time it is known that the activity of BvgS can be modulated by several external stimuli. At low temperature or in the presence of nicotinic acid or sulfate, the protein is inactivated in vivo and therefore the respective system is switched off under these conditions. Moreover, it has been shown that the incubation of BvgS with oxidized ubichinone had an inhibitory effect on the autophosphorylation activity of the kinase (Bock & Gross, 2002). So far, the relevance for the signal perception of the additional BvgS-domains, like the periplasmic, the PAS- or the HPt-domain is still unclear. Therefore in this work a self-constructed Bordetella bronchiseptica specific gene bank was screened with the periplasmic, the PAS- and the HPt-Domain of BvgS for protein-interactions in the GAL4-yeast two-hybrid (YTH) system. All together four putative protein-interactions were found in the case of the periplasmic and the PAS domain after exclusion of false-positive clones and after going through corresponding controls, while on the other hand no protein interaction could be detected for the HPt domain. Among the detected putative protein interactions of the PAS domain the protein BB0602 was identified as an ATP binding protein of an ABC transport system for branched chain amino acids. This interaction could also be verified by GST-pull down assay. The biochemical proof for the other protein interactions still remains to be done. The results of the YTH screening indicate that the activity of BvgS and therefore the virulence gene expression might be influenced by the presence or absence of branched chain amino acids. Among others characterization of a B. bronchiseptica bb0602 deletion mutant with respect to the possible effect on the expression of bvg-dependent genes will further elucidate the relevance of the detected protein interaction between the BvgS-PAS domain and the BB0602 protein. Another aim of this work was the structural and functional characterization of the response regulator BvgA of B. holmesii (BvgABH). Recently, it was shown that despite extensive sequence conservation between the response regulator BvgA of B. holmesii and BvgA of B. pertussis (BvgABP), the BvgABH protein is not able to replace the function of the BvgABP protein in vitro and in vivo (Gerlach et al., 2004). Therefore in this work a hybrid response regulator protein BvgAfus was constructed, which contains the receiver and the linker domain of BvgABH and the output domain of BvgABP. A Prerequisite for this experiment was the knowledge of domain borders and linker sequences of BvgABP, which have been identified by means of limited proteolysis in combination with mass spectrometric methods (Bantscheff et al., 2000). In contrast to the BvgABH protein, the hybrid response regulator BvgAfus showed binding to BvgABP-dependent promoter sequences. Additionally, BvgAfus was able to induce the expression of BvgABP-dependent genes in vivo. But compared to the wild-type protein BvgABH the hybrid response regulator BvgAfus was limited in its phosphorylation efficiency. These results indicate that the inability of BvgABH to complement BvgABP in B. pertussis is due to the small number of sequence variations present in its output domain. The output domains of BvgABH and BvgABP differ in ten amino acids of which four amino acid substitutions are located in the helix-turn-helix motif (HTH). To investigate whether the different binding and transcription activating properties of BvgABH are due to the sequence variations in the HTH, the sequence was adjusted as compared to BvgABP by means of site directed mutagenesis. The resulting protein BvgABH* showed similar phosphorylation efficiency compared to the wild-type protein BvgABH but no specific binding to BvgABP-dependent promoter sequences and was not able to replace BvgABP functionally in vivo. This result indicates that the few additional amino acid differences outside of the HTH present in the output domain of BvgABH which do not interfere much with the phosphorylation efficiency of the protein influence its DNA binding properties. The identification of further BvgABH regulated genes of B. holmesii and the characterization of BvgABH binding sites will help to further clarify the functional differences between the orthologous BvgA proteins of B. holmesii and B. pertussis. KW - Bordetella KW - Genregulation KW - Bordetella KW - Genregulation KW - Bordetella KW - gene regulation Y1 - 2007 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-21991 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kim, Mia A1 - Grimmig, Tanja A1 - Grimm, Martin A1 - Lazariotou, Maria A1 - Meier, Eva A1 - Rosenwald, Andreas A1 - Tsaur, Igor A1 - Blaheta, Roman A1 - Heemann, Uwe A1 - Germer, Christoph-Thomas A1 - Waaga-Gasser, Ana Maria A1 - Gasser, Martin T1 - Expression of Foxp3 in Colorectal Cancer but Not in Treg Cells Correlates with Disease Progression in Patients with Colorectal Cancer JF - PLoS ONE N2 - Background Measles virus (MV) causes T cell suppression by interference with phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) activation. We previously found that this interference affected the activity of splice regulatory proteins and a T cell inhibitory protein isoform was produced from an alternatively spliced pre-mRNA. Hypothesis Differentially regulated and alternatively splice variant transcripts accumulating in response to PI3K abrogation in T cells potentially encode proteins involved in T cell silencing. Methods To test this hypothesis at the cellular level, we performed a Human Exon 1.0 ST Array on RNAs isolated from T cells stimulated only or stimulated after PI3K inhibition. We developed a simple algorithm based on a splicing index to detect genes that undergo alternative splicing (AS) or are differentially regulated (RG) upon T cell suppression. Results Applying our algorithm to the data, 9% of the genes were assigned as AS, while only 3% were attributed to RG. Though there are overlaps, AS and RG genes differed with regard to functional regulation, and were found to be enriched in different functional groups. AS genes targeted extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction and focal adhesion pathways, while RG genes were mainly enriched in cytokine-receptor interaction and Jak-STAT. When combined, AS/RG dependent alterations targeted pathways essential for T cell receptor signaling, cytoskeletal dynamics and cell cycle entry. Conclusions PI3K abrogation interferes with key T cell activation processes through both differential expression and alternative splicing, which together actively contribute to T cell suppression. KW - T cells KW - gene regulation KW - alternative splicing KW - measles virus KW - T cell receptors KW - reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction KW - TCR signaling cascade KW - cell cycle and cell division Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-130340 VL - 8 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Klein-Hessling, Stefan A1 - Muhammad, Khalid A1 - Klein, Matthias A1 - Pusch, Tobias A1 - Rudolf, Ronald A1 - Flöter, Jessica A1 - Qureischi, Musga A1 - Beilhack, Andreas A1 - Vaeth, Martin A1 - Kummerow, Carsten A1 - Backes, Christian A1 - Schoppmeyer, Rouven A1 - Hahn, Ulrike A1 - Hoth, Markus A1 - Bopp, Tobias A1 - Berberich-Siebelt, Friederike A1 - Patra, Amiya A1 - Avots, Andris A1 - Müller, Nora A1 - Schulze, Almut A1 - Serfling, Edgar T1 - NFATc1 controls the cytotoxicity of CD8\(^{+}\) T cells JF - Nature Communications N2 - Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are effector CD8\(^{+}\) T cells that eradicate infected and malignant cells. Here we show that the transcription factor NFATc1 controls the cytotoxicity of mouse cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Activation of Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\) cytotoxic T lymphocytes showed a defective cytoskeleton organization and recruitment of cytosolic organelles to immunological synapses. These cells have reduced cytotoxicity against tumor cells, and mice with NFATc1-deficient T cells are defective in controlling Listeria infection. Transcriptome analysis shows diminished RNA levels of numerous genes in Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\) CD8\(^{+}\) T cells, including Tbx21, Gzmb and genes encoding cytokines and chemokines, and genes controlling glycolysis. Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\), but not Nfatc2\(^{-/-}\) CD8\(^{+}\) T cells have an impaired metabolic switch to glycolysis, which can be restored by IL-2. Genome-wide ChIP-seq shows that NFATc1 binds many genes that control cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. Together these data indicate that NFATc1 is an important regulator of cytotoxic T lymphocyte effector functions. KW - cytotoxic T cells KW - lymphocyte activation KW - signal transduction KW - gene regulation KW - immune cells KW - NFATc1 Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-170353 VL - 8 IS - 511 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Loeffler-Wirth, Henry A1 - Kreuz, Markus A1 - Hopp, Lydia A1 - Arakelyan, Arsen A1 - Haake, Andrea A1 - Cogliatti, Sergio B. A1 - Feller, Alfred C. A1 - Hansmann, Martin-Leo A1 - Lenze, Dido A1 - Möller, Peter A1 - Müller-Hermelink, Hans Konrad A1 - Fortenbacher, Erik A1 - Willscher, Edith A1 - Ott, German A1 - Rosenwald, Andreas A1 - Pott, Christiane A1 - Schwaenen, Carsten A1 - Trautmann, Heiko A1 - Wessendorf, Swen A1 - Stein, Harald A1 - Szczepanowski, Monika A1 - Trümper, Lorenz A1 - Hummel, Michael A1 - Klapper, Wolfram A1 - Siebert, Reiner A1 - Loeffler, Markus A1 - Binder, Hans T1 - A modular transcriptome map of mature B cell lymphomas JF - Genome Medicine N2 - Background Germinal center-derived B cell lymphomas are tumors of the lymphoid tissues representing one of the most heterogeneous malignancies. Here we characterize the variety of transcriptomic phenotypes of this disease based on 873 biopsy specimens collected in the German Cancer Aid MMML (Molecular Mechanisms in Malignant Lymphoma) consortium. They include diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL), follicular lymphoma (FL), Burkitt’s lymphoma, mixed FL/DLBCL lymphomas, primary mediastinal large B cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma, IRF4-rearranged large cell lymphoma, MYC-negative Burkitt-like lymphoma with chr. 11q aberration and mantle cell lymphoma. Methods We apply self-organizing map (SOM) machine learning to microarray-derived expression data to generate a holistic view on the transcriptome landscape of lymphomas, to describe the multidimensional nature of gene regulation and to pursue a modular view on co-expression. Expression data were complemented by pathological, genetic and clinical characteristics. Results We present a transcriptome map of B cell lymphomas that allows visual comparison between the SOM portraits of different lymphoma strata and individual cases. It decomposes into one dozen modules of co-expressed genes related to different functional categories, to genetic defects and to the pathogenesis of lymphomas. On a molecular level, this disease rather forms a continuum of expression states than clearly separated phenotypes. We introduced the concept of combinatorial pattern types (PATs) that stratifies the lymphomas into nine PAT groups and, on a coarser level, into five prominent cancer hallmark types with proliferation, inflammation and stroma signatures. Inflammation signatures in combination with healthy B cell and tonsil characteristics associate with better overall survival rates, while proliferation in combination with inflammation and plasma cell characteristics worsens it. A phenotypic similarity tree is presented that reveals possible progression paths along the transcriptional dimensions. Our analysis provided a novel look on the transition range between FL and DLBCL, on DLBCL with poor prognosis showing expression patterns resembling that of Burkitt’s lymphoma and particularly on ‘double-hit’ MYC and BCL2 transformed lymphomas. Conclusions The transcriptome map provides a tool that aggregates, refines and visualizes the data collected in the MMML study and interprets them in the light of previous knowledge to provide orientation and support in current and future studies on lymphomas and on other cancer entities. KW - tumor heterogeneity KW - B cell malignancies KW - gene regulation KW - molecular subtypes KW - machine learning Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-237262 VL - 11 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Morton, Charles Oliver A1 - Fliesser, Mirjam A1 - Dittrich, Marcus A1 - Müller, Tobias A1 - Bauer, Ruth A1 - Kneitz, Susanne A1 - Hope, William A1 - Rogers, Thomas Richard A1 - Einsele, Hermann A1 - Löffler, Jürgen T1 - Gene Expression Profiles of Human Dendritic Cells Interacting with Aspergillus fumigatus in a Bilayer Model of the Alveolar Epithelium/Endothelium Interface N2 - The initial stages of the interaction between the host and Aspergillus fumigatus at the alveolar surface of the human lung are critical in the establishment of aspergillosis. Using an in vitro bilayer model of the alveolus, including both the epithelium (human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line, A549) and endothelium (human pulmonary artery epithelial cells, HPAEC) on transwell membranes, it was possible to closely replicate the in vivo conditions. Two distinct sub-groups of dendritic cells (DC), monocyte-derived DC (moDC) and myeloid DC (mDC), were included in the model to examine immune responses to fungal infection at the alveolar surface. RNA in high quantity and quality was extracted from the cell layers on the transwell membrane to allow gene expression analysis using tailored custom-made microarrays, containing probes for 117 immune-relevant genes. This microarray data indicated minimal induction of immune gene expression in A549 alveolar epithelial cells in response to germ tubes of A. fumigatus. In contrast, the addition of DC to the system greatly increased the number of differentially expressed immune genes. moDC exhibited increased expression of genes including CLEC7A, CD209 and CCL18 in the absence of A. fumigatus compared to mDC. In the presence of A. fumigatus, both DC subgroups exhibited up-regulation of genes identified in previous studies as being associated with the exposure of DC to A. fumigatus and exhibiting chemotactic properties for neutrophils, including CXCL2, CXCL5, CCL20, and IL1B. This model closely approximated the human alveolus allowing for an analysis of the host pathogen interface that complements existing animal models of IA. KW - aspergillus fumigatus KW - gene expression KW - immune receptors KW - immune response KW - denritic cells KW - B cell receptors KW - gene regulation KW - RNA extraction Y1 - 2014 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-112893 ER - TY - THES A1 - Pröls, Reinhard T1 - Regulation and function of extracellular invertases of tomato T1 - Regulation und Funktion extrazellulärer Invertasen aus Tomate N2 - Wachstum und Entwicklung pflanzlicher Gewebe bedingen eine fortwährende Veränderung von Source-Sink Beziehungen. Gewebe mit einem Nettoexport (Source) oder - import (Sink) von Kohlenhydraten müssen ihren aktuellen Bedarf an Assimilaten entsprechend dem Entwicklungsstadium anpassen. Darüber hinaus haben Pflanzen als ortsgebundene Lebewesen Regulationsmechanismen entwickelt, die eine flexible Antwort der Assimilatverteilung auf spezielle Anforderungen des Habitats, wie biotische oder abiotische Stressfaktoren und wechselnde Lichtbedingungen, ermöglichen. Die Assimilatverteilung ist vielfältig reguliert und erfordert spezifische Enzymfunktionen, wie Zuckertransporter und saccharosespaltende Enzyme. Extrazelluläre Invertasen nehmen eine essentielle Funktion in der apoplastischen Phloementladung und in der Regulation von Source-Sink Übergängen ein. Dies spiegelt sich in dem Auftreten verschiedener Invertase- Isoenzyme mit speziellen Expressions- und Regulationsmustern wider, welche eine Koordination des Kohlenhydratmetabolismus in unterschiedlichen Geweben, zu unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstufen und unter sich ändernden Umweltbedingungen ermöglichen. Ein detailliertes Wissen über die Funktion extrazellulärer Invertasen könnte eingesetzt werden, um Wachstum, Entwicklung oder Pathogenresisitenz von Nutzpflanzen gezielt zu verändern. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden die Regulationsmuster und die Funktion dreier extrazellulärer Invertasen aus Tomate, Lin5, Lin6 und Lin7 untersucht. Durch umfangreiche Promotorstudien konnte eine gewebe- und entwicklungsspezifische Expression dieser Isoenzyme und entsprechende Regulationsmuster offengelegt werden. Lin5 zeigt eine entwicklungsabhängige Expression in Früchten. Lin6 wird in frühen Entwicklungsstadien, beginnend mit der Samenkeimung, exprimiert; in ausgewachsenen Pflanzen ist eine Lin6 Expression nur in Pollen oder nach Verwundungsinduktion nachweisbar. Lin7 wird ausschließlich in Tapetum-Gewebe und Pollen exprimiert. Die hormonelle Regulation der Isogene wurde im Detail untersucht, hierbei konnten bekannte Phänotypen, welche durch Gibberellinsäure und Jasmonate bedingt werden, mit Invertasefunktionen in Korrelation gebracht werden. Darüber hinaus konnte in einem funktionalen Ansatz gezeigt werden, dass Lin7 eine wichtige Rolle in der Pollenkeimung zukommt. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die umfassendste Untersuchung extrazellulärer Invertasen während der Blütenentwicklung dar, an der drei Isoenzyme aus Tomate beteiligt sind. Dadurch, dass den einzelnen Invertasen Lin5, Lin6 und Lin7 individuelle Funktionen zugewiesen werden konnten, eröffnen sich neue Erkenntnisse über die Kohlenhydratversorgung während der Blüten- und Fruchtentwicklung. Für die untersuchten gewebespezifischen Promotoren eröffnen sich zudem Anwendungsmöglichkeiten in der Biotechnologie, was insbesondere für den pollenspezifischen Lin7 Promotor zutrifft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Lin6 Promotor das Ziel von hormon-, zucker- und verwundungsvermittelten Signalwegen ist. Darüber hinaus konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Elemente des circadianen Oszillators von A. thaliana mit dem Lin6 Promotor funktionell interagieren und die Lin6 Expression einem diurnalen Rhythmus unterliegt. Dieses komplexe Regulationsmuster spiegelt sich in vielen cis-aktiven Elementen wider, die im Lin6 Promotor vorgefunden wurden. Durch dieses Merkmal wird die These gestützt, dass verschiedene Stimuli über die extrazelluläre Invertase integriert werden und so eine koordinierte Zellantwort auf sich ändernde interne und externe Bedingungen ermöglicht wird. Nachdem Zuckermoleküle ihrerseits die Expression von Lin6 induzieren, wird dadurch eine Amplifikation von Signalen über eine positive Rückkopplungsschleife ermöglicht. Die Vielzahl an cis-aktiven Elementen und deren Anordnung im Lin6 Promotor stellen ein ideales Modellsystem dar, um Fragen in Bezug auf Signalinteraktion und -integration zu untersuchen. In einer umfangreichen Studie wurde der Lin6 Promotor erfolgreich als induzierbares Expressionssystem eingesetzt. Hierbei wurde ein Invertaseinhibitor unter der Kontrolle des cytokinininduzierbaren Lin6 Promotors in transgenen Tabakpflanzen exprimiert. Mit diesem Ansatz ist es gelungen einen kausalen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Hormon Cytokinin und extrazellulären Invertasen in der Seneszenzverzögerung herzustellen. Diese Studie zeigt, dass induzierbare Expressionssysteme essentiell sind, um spezifische Fragestellungen auf molekularer Ebene klären zu können. Bei der Klonierung obig genannter Promotorsequenzen haben sich zudem zwei interessante strukturelle Besonderheiten ergeben. Zum einen sind die Gene von Lin5 und Lin7 in einem Tandem auf dem Genom angeordnet, zum anderen konnte eine Transposoninsertion im Intron I des Lin5 Gens gezeigt werden. Mit einem Primerpaar, das aus der Transposaseregion dieses Transposons abgeleitet wurde, konnten entsprechende Sequenzen von mehreren Solanaceae Spezies gewonnen werden. N2 - Because of growth and development, plant tissues are characterised by a permanent change in source-sink relations. Tissues with a net carbohydrate export (source) or import (sink) have to adopt their actual demand for assimilates according to the developmental status. Furthermore, plants, as sessile life forms, have developed regulatory mechanisms that enable a flexible response of assimilate partitioning to specific requirements of the habitat, like biotic and abiotic stress factors and changing light conditions. The distribution of assimilates involves specific enzyme functions including sugar transporters and sucrose cleaving enzymes and is regulated by a variety of stimuli. Extracellular invertases cover an essential function in apoplastic phloem unloading and play an important role in regulating source-sink relations. This property is reflected by the occurrence of different invertase isoenzymes with specific expression and regulation patterns that enable a co-ordination of the carbohydrate metabolism in diverse tissues, at different developmental stages, and under varying environmental conditions. Improved knowledge of extracellular invertase function might allow altering growth, development or pathogen resistance of crop plants in a specific way. The present study is aimed at elucidating the regulation patterns and functions of three members of the extracellular invertase gene family of tomato, Lin5, Lin6, and Lin7. Detailed promoter analysis revealed a tissue- and developmental-specific expression of isoenzymes and corresponding regulation patterns. Lin5 shows a developmental regulated expression in fruits. Lin6 is expressed in early developmental stages starting in germinating seeds; in grown up plants Lin6 is solely expressed in pollen and upon wound-stimulation. Lin7 is exclusively expressed in tapetum and pollen tissue. The hormonal regulation of all three isogenes was analysed in detail, whereby known GA- and JA-mediated flower phenotypes could be correlated with invertase functions. In addition, an important role of Lin7 invertase in pollen germination was demonstrated in a functional approach. This is the most profound analysis of extracellular invertases in the delicate process of floral organ development that includes three tomato isoenzymes. In particular, dissection of the individual roles of Lin5, Lin6, and Lin7 reveals novel insights in carbohydrate supply during flower and fruit development. The analysed tissue-specific promoters are profitable tools in plant biotechnology, which in particular applies to the pollen-specific Lin7 promoter. It has been demonstrated that the Lin6 promoter serves as target for hormonal-, sugar-, and wound-mediated signalling pathways. Moreover, a functional interaction of circadian oscillator elements of A. thaliana with the Lin6 promoter and a diurnal rhythm of Lin6 expression have been substantiated. This complex regulation pattern is reflected by the identification of many well-defined cis-acting elements within the Lin6 promoter. This feature supports an integration of various stimuli mediated via extracellular invertase expression resulting in a co-ordinated cellular response to changing internal and external conditions. As sugars on their part induce Lin6 expression, this could result in signal amplification via a positive feedback loop. Furthermore, the extensive appearance and constellation of cisacting elements within the Lin6 promoter provides the basis to answer questions in signal cross-talk and signal integration in plant gene expression. In addition, the Lin6 promoter was successfully used as an inducible expression system. In transgenic tobacco lines an invertase inhibitor was expressed under control of the cytokinin-inducible Lin6 promoter. Thereby, a causal relationship between cytokinin and extracellular invertase for the delay of senescence was demonstrated. This study emphasises the importance of inducible expression systems to address specific questions on a molecular basis. The above-mentioned promoter sequences were obtained via sequential genome walks. Hereby two interesting structural features appeared. First, Lin5 and Lin7 genes are arranged in a direct tandem repeat on the genome. Second, a CACTA-like transposon insertion in intron I of the Lin5 gene was revealed. A primer pair deduced from the transposase region of this transposon allowed the amplification of similar sequences of various Solanaceae species. KW - Tomate KW - Invertase KW - Extrazellulärraum KW - Genregulation KW - extrazelluläre Invertasen KW - Genregulation KW - Tomate KW - cell-wall invertases KW - gene regulation KW - tomato Y1 - 2004 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-10260 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Riedel, Alice A1 - Mofolo, Boitumelo A1 - Avota, Elita A1 - Schneider-Schaulies, Sibylle A1 - Meintjes, Ayton A1 - Mulder, Nicola A1 - Kneitz, Susanne T1 - Accumulation of Splice Variants and Transcripts in Response to PI3K Inhibition in T Cells JF - PLoS ONE N2 - Background Measles virus (MV) causes T cell suppression by interference with phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) activation. We previously found that this interference affected the activity of splice regulatory proteins and a T cell inhibitory protein isoform was produced from an alternatively spliced pre-mRNA. Hypothesis Differentially regulated and alternatively splice variant transcripts accumulating in response to PI3K abrogation in T cells potentially encode proteins involved in T cell silencing. Methods To test this hypothesis at the cellular level, we performed a Human Exon 1.0 ST Array on RNAs isolated from T cells stimulated only or stimulated after PI3K inhibition. We developed a simple algorithm based on a splicing index to detect genes that undergo alternative splicing (AS) or are differentially regulated (RG) upon T cell suppression. Results Applying our algorithm to the data, 9% of the genes were assigned as AS, while only 3% were attributed to RG. Though there are overlaps, AS and RG genes differed with regard to functional regulation, and were found to be enriched in different functional groups. AS genes targeted extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction and focal adhesion pathways, while RG genes were mainly enriched in cytokine-receptor interaction and Jak-STAT. When combined, AS/RG dependent alterations targeted pathways essential for T cell receptor signaling, cytoskeletal dynamics and cell cycle entry. Conclusions PI3K abrogation interferes with key T cell activation processes through both differential expression and alternative splicing, which together actively contribute to T cell suppression. KW - T cells KW - gene regulation KW - alternative splicing KW - measles virus KW - T cell receptors KW - reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction KW - cell cycle and cell division KW - TCR signaling cascade Y1 - 2013 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-130335 VL - 8 IS - 2 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rohmer, Carina A1 - Dobritz, Ronja A1 - Tuncbilek-Dere, Dilek A1 - Lehmann, Esther A1 - Gerlach, David A1 - George, Shilpa Elizabeth A1 - Bae, Taeok A1 - Nieselt, Kay A1 - Wolz, Christiane T1 - Influence of Staphylococcus aureus strain background on Sa3int phage life cycle switches JF - Viruses N2 - Staphylococcus aureus asymptomatically colonizes the nasal cavity of mammals, but it is also a leading cause of life-threatening infections. Most human nasal isolates carry Sa3 phages, which integrate into the bacterial hlb gene encoding a sphingomyelinase. The virulence factor-encoding genes carried by the Sa3-phages are highly human-specific, and most animal strains are Sa3 negative. Thus, both insertion and excision of the prophage could potentially confer a fitness advantage to S. aureus. Here, we analyzed the phage life cycle of two Sa3 phages, Φ13 and ΦN315, in different phage-cured S. aureus strains. Based on phage transfer experiments, strains could be classified into low (8325-4, SH1000, and USA300c) and high (MW2c and Newman-c) transfer strains. High-transfer strains promoted the replication of phages, whereas phage adsorption, integration, excision, or recA transcription was not significantly different between strains. RNASeq analyses of replication-deficient lysogens revealed no strain-specific differences in the CI/Mor regulatory switch. However, lytic genes were significantly upregulated in the high transfer strain MW2c Φ13 compared to strain 8325-4 Φ13. By transcriptional start site prediction, new promoter regions within the lytic modules were identified, which are likely targeted by specific host factors. Such host-phage interaction probably accounts for the strain-specific differences in phage replication and transfer frequency. Thus, the genetic makeup of the host strains may determine the rate of phage mobilization, a feature that might impact the speed at which certain strains can achieve host adaptation. KW - phage KW - virulence KW - induction KW - gene regulation KW - Staphylococcus KW - hemolysin Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-297209 SN - 1999-4915 VL - 14 IS - 11 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schmoll, T. A1 - Morschhäuser, J. A1 - Ott, M. A1 - Ludwig, B. A1 - Van Die, I. A1 - Hacker, Jörg T1 - Complete genetic organization and functional aspects of the Escherichia coli S fimbrial adhesin determinant: nucleotide sequence of the genes sfaB, C, D, E, F. N2 - The S fimbrial adhesin (sfa) determinant of E. co/i comprises nine genes situated on a stretch of 7.9 kilobases (kb) DNA. Here the nucleotide sequence of the genes sfa B and sfaC situated proximal to the main structural gene sfaA is described. Sfa-LacZ fusions show that the two genes are transcribed in opposite directions. The isolation of mutants in the proximal region of the sfa gene cluster, the construction of sfa-phoA gene fusions and subsequent transcomplementation sturlies indicated that the genes sfaB and sfaC play a role in regulation of the sfa determinant. ln addition the nucleotide sequence of the genes sfa D, sfa E and sfa F situated between the genes sfaA and sfaG responsible for S subunit proteins, were determined. lt is suggested that these genes are involved in transport and assembly of fimbrial subunits. Thus the entire genetic organization of the sfa determinant is presented and compared with the gene clusters coding for P fimbriae (pap), F1 C fimbriae (foc) and type I fimbriae ( fim). The evolutionary relationship of fimbrial adhesin determinants is discussed. KW - Infektionsbiologie KW - Escherichia coli KW - S fimbrial adhesin (Sfa) KW - genetic organization KW - gene regulation KW - nucleotide sequence Y1 - 1990 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-59661 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schneider, Johannes A1 - Klein, Teresa A1 - Mielich-Süss, Benjamin A1 - Koch, Gudrun A1 - Franke, Christian A1 - Kuipers, Oskar P. A1 - Kovács, Ákos T. A1 - Sauer, Markus A1 - Lopez, Daniel T1 - Spatio-temporal Remodeling of Functional Membrane Microdomains Organizes the Signaling Networks of a Bacterium JF - PLoS Genetics N2 - Lipid rafts are membrane microdomains specialized in the regulation of numerous cellular processes related to membrane organization, as diverse as signal transduction, protein sorting, membrane trafficking or pathogen invasion. It has been proposed that this functional diversity would require a heterogeneous population of raft domains with varying compositions. However, a mechanism for such diversification is not known. We recently discovered that bacterial membranes organize their signal transduction pathways in functional membrane microdomains (FMMs) that are structurally and functionally similar to the eukaryotic lipid rafts. In this report, we took advantage of the tractability of the prokaryotic model Bacillus subtilis to provide evidence for the coexistence of two distinct families of FMMs in bacterial membranes, displaying a distinctive distribution of proteins specialized in different biological processes. One family of microdomains harbors the scaffolding flotillin protein FloA that selectively tethers proteins specialized in regulating cell envelope turnover and primary metabolism. A second population of microdomains containing the two scaffolding flotillins, FloA and FloT, arises exclusively at later stages of cell growth and specializes in adaptation of cells to stationary phase. Importantly, the diversification of membrane microdomains does not occur arbitrarily. We discovered that bacterial cells control the spatio-temporal remodeling of microdomains by restricting the activation of FloT expression to stationary phase. This regulation ensures a sequential assembly of functionally specialized membrane microdomains to strategically organize signaling networks at the right time during the lifespan of a bacterium. KW - membrane proteins KW - gene expression KW - bacillus subtilis KW - fluorescence microscopy KW - cell fusion KW - signal transduction KW - gene regulation KW - lipids Y1 - 2015 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-125577 VL - 11 IS - 4 ER - TY - THES A1 - Staib, Peter T1 - Analyse der Expression einer Virulenzgenfamilie von Candida albicans während der Infektion T1 - Analysis of the expression of a Candida albicans virulence gene family during infection N2 - Der opportunistisch humanpathogene Hefepilz Candida albicans gehört bei vielen gesunden Menschen zur mikrobiellen Schleimhautflora, kann jedoch bei abwehrgeschwächten Patienten oberflächliche Infektionen sowie auch lebensbedrohliche tiefe Organmykosen verursachen. Obwohl der Immunstatus des Wirtes für eine Infektion mit diesem Erreger von entscheidender Bedeutung ist, tragen vermutlich auch eine Reihe von Virulenzfaktoren zur Pathogenität von C. albicans bei, indem sie Besiedlung, Ausbreitung und Vermehrung der Pilzzellen unter Anpassung an die verschiedensten Wirtsnischen unterstützen. Eine für die Pathogenität von C. albicans wichtige Eigenschaft ist die Bildung sekretorischer Aspartylproteasen (SAPs), die durch eine große Familie homologer Gene codiert werden. Es wird angenommen, dass die individuellen Proteasen während der Infektion verschiedene Aufgaben erfüllen bzw. optimal an unterschiedliche Wirtsnischen angepaßt sind. Jedoch ist der Beitrag der einzelnen SAP-Gene zur Pathogenese noch weitgehend unverstanden. Da die wirtsinduzierte Aktivierung dieser Virulenzgene während bestimmter Infektionsstadien Hinweise auf ihre spezifische pathogenetische Bedeutung liefern könnte, wurde in dieser Arbeit eine Methode für C. albicans entwickelt, mit der die Induktion eines Gens während der Infektion nachgewiesen werden kann. Die Methode beruht auf einer genetischen Rekombination als Reporter einer Genexpression, was bedeutet, dass nach Induktion des zu untersuchenden Gens eine site-spezifische Rekombinase spezifisch einen Mykophenolsäure-Resistenzmarker aus dem Genom der Zelle entfernt. Da diese Deletion ein irreversibles Ereignis darstellt, das auf die jeweiligen Nachkommen vererbt wird, kann selbst eine vorübergehende Genaktivierung während eines bestimmten Infektionsstadiums bzw. in einem bestimmten Organ in einzelnen Zellen nach deren Reisolierung aus infiziertem Gewebe durch Ausplattieren auf geeignetem Indikatormedium nachgewiesen werden. Durch Analyse der Expression des SAP2-Gens wurde bestätigt, dass mit diesem Reportersystem eine biologisch signifikante Genaktivierung in C. albicans nachgewiesen werden kann. SAP2 wird in C. albicans in vitro in einem Medium induziert, das Rinderserumalbumin als alleinige Stickstoffquelle enthält, ist in anderen gängigen Labormedien jedoch reprimiert. Diese in vivo-Expressionstechnologie (IVET) wurde verwendet, um die Expression von sechs verschiedenen SAP-Genen von C. albicans, SAP1-SAP6, in unterschiedlichen Tiermodellen zu studieren. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die einzelnen Proteasegene abhängig von der Art der Infektion, d.h. lokal begrenzte Schleimhautinfektion bzw. Systeminfektion, und auch vom Infektionsstadium differentiell reguliert werden. Dabei wurden sogar die äußerst homologen Gene SAP4-SAP6, die aufgrund von in vitro erzielten Ergebnissen als hyphenspezifische Gene galten, in vivo unterschiedlich reguliert. SAP5 und SAP6, aber nicht die anderen SAP-Gene, wurden in einem Maus-Ösophagus-Schleimhautmodell signifikant aktiviert, als die C. albicans-Hyphen in das Epithel invadierten. Eine stadienspezifische Expression der SAP-Gene wurde in einem Maus-Peritonitis-Modell beobachtet. Kurz nach Inokulation der C. albicans-Hefezellen in die Bauchhöhle der Tiere, zu einem Zeitpunkt, als noch keine Ausbildung von Hyphen zu beobachten war, wurde SAP5, aber nicht SAP6 oder eines der anderen analysierten SAP-Gene in einem signifikanten Anteil der infizierenden Zellen aktiviert. Demzufolge scheint SAP5 für die Gewebeinvasion während der Schleimhautinfektion und auch für die ersten Schritte während einer disseminierenden Infektion von Bedeutung zu sein. Durch die intravenöse Infektion der Maus, bei der frühe Infektionsschritte umgangen werden, wurde gezeigt, dass SAP5 und SAP6, aber auch SAP4, während der späteren Stadien einer disseminierenden Infektion weiterhin aktiviert werden. Dagegen wurde eine Induktion des SAP2-Gens vorwiegend im Spätstadium einer systemischen Infektion beobachtet, nachdem die Pilzzellen innere Organe befallen hatten. Daher fördert SAP2 vermutlich weniger die Invasion von Geweben, dafür aber die Vermehrung der Pilze nach Organbefall, möglicherweise durch die Bereitstellung von Nährstoffen. Dabei wurde gezeigt, dass die in vivo-Regulation von SAP2 durch bestimmte Repeatstrukturen innerhalb der Promotorregion dieses Gens beeinflußt wird. Während des Verlaufs einer systemischen Infektion wurden sogar die zwei SAP2-Allele des hier untersuchten C. albicans-Modellstammes CAI4, die sich in dieser Repeatregion unterscheiden, differentiell reguliert. Das SAP2-2-Allel wurde nämlich bereits deutlich früher induziert als das Allel SAP2-1. Eine Expression von SAP1 und SAP3 konnte im Gegensatz zu den anderen SAP-Genen nur in wenigen der infizierenden Zellen nachgewiesen werden, so dass diesen Genen ein Beitrag zur Pathogenität in den hier untersuchten Infektionsmodellen nicht beigemessen werden kann. Im Verlauf einer Infektion setzt C. albicans vermutlich viele verschiedene Virulenzfaktoren gleichzeitig für eine bestmögliche Anpassung an die jeweilige Wirtsnische ein. Ob in Abhängigkeit entsprechender Wirtssignale dabei unterschiedliche Eigenschaften der Pilzzelle koordiniert reguliert werden, ist kaum erforscht, erscheint jedoch für ein besseres Verständnis der Erreger-Wirts-Auseinandersetzung von besonderem Interesse. An der Kontrolle der Hyphenbildung von C. albicans sind wenigstens zwei Signaltransduktionskaskaden beteiligt, eine MAP-Kinase-Kaskade und ein cAMP-abhängiger Signalweg, die in den Transkriptionsregulatoren CPH1 bzw. EFG1 enden. Nachdem dimorphes Wachstum für die Infektion von Bedeutung ist und die Expression der Gene SAP4-SAP6 in vitro mit der Hyphenwachstumsphase verbunden ist, wurde eine mögliche Abhängigkeit hyphenassoziierter SAP-Aktivierung von diesen Regulatoren durch die Analyse der SAP5-Expression in entsprechenden Mutanten analysiert. Sowohl in cph1- als auch in efg1-Einzelmutanten wurde eine reduzierte Aktivierung des SAP5-Gens in vivo beobachtet. Dadurch konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl CPH1 als auch EFG1 zur SAP5-Aktivierung während der Infektion beitragen. Da cph1-Mutanten im infizierten Gewebe wie der Wildtyp-Stamm Hyphen ausbildeten, war die Hyphenbildung allein offensichtlich nicht für eine volle SAP5-Aktivierung in vivo ausreichend. Andererseits war die SAP5-Induktion in vivo nicht von der Hyphenwachstumsphase abhängig, da eine verminderte, aber dennoch signifikante SAP5-Expression auch in den efg1-Mutanten zu beobachten war, die in den infizierten Tieren nur in der Hefephase wuchsen. In Zellen, in denen beide Regulatoren fehlten, konnte eine Induktion von SAP5 kaum nachgewiesen werden. Das bedeutet, dass diese Signalwege in C. albicans für die Kontrolle verschiedener zellulärer Programme während der Infektion wichtig sind und die Expression von unterschiedlichen Virulenzgenen koordinieren. Durch die in vivo-Analyse der Virulenzgenexpression in C. albicans konnten Einblicke in regulatorische Anpassungsmechanismen dieses Mikroorganismus an verschiedene Wirtsnischen gewonnen werden. Einzelne Mitglieder einer Virulenzgenfamilie dieses Pilzes werden während der Infektion differentiell und in Abhängigkeit vom Infektionsstadium reguliert und tragen daher vermutlich sehr spezifisch zur Pathogenese bei. Unterschiedliche Virulenzmerkmale können zudem während der Infektion koordiniert reguliert werden und dadurch gemeinsam die Anpassungsfähigkeit von C. albicans an den Wirt unterstützen. Die erzielten Erkenntnisse sollten letztlich dazu beitragen, die Pathogenität dieses wichtigen opportunistisch humanpathogenen Erregers besser verstehen zu können. N2 - The opportunistic human pathogenic yeast Candida albicans is a member of the microflora on mucosal surfaces of many healthy people but can cause superficial infections as well as life-threatening deep organ mycoses in immunocompromised patients. Although the ability of C. albicans to cause disease largely depends on the immune status of the host, it is generally assumed that a number of virulence factors also contribute to the pathogenicity of C. albicans, thereby supporting colonization, distribution and multiplication of the fungal cells and allowing an adaption to various host niches. The production of secreted aspartic proteases (SAPs), encoded by a large family of homologous genes, plays an important role in C. albicans pathogenicity. It is likely that the individual proteases fullfill various functions during infection or are optimally adapted to different host niches. However, the contribution of single SAP genes to pathogenicity is not well understood. Because the host-induced activation of these virulence genes at a certain infection stage might give clues to their specific role in pathogenicity, an in vivo-expression technology (IVET) was developed in this work that allows the detection of gene activation in C. albicans during infection. The method is based on genetic recombination as a reporter of gene expression, resulting in the specific excision of a mycophenolic acid resistance marker from the genome by a site-specific recombinase after induction of the target gene. Because deletion of the marker represents an irreversible event that is inherited by the progeny of the corresponding cell, even a transient gene expression at a certain infection stage or in specific organs can be detected in single cells recovered from infected tissue by plating on appropriate indicator medium. The suitability of the reporter system for detecting a biologically meaningful gene activation in C. albicans was confirmed by analyzing expression of the SAP2 gene, which is induced in vitro during growth in a medium containing bovine serum albumin as the sole nitrogen source, but repressed in other commonly used laboratory media. IVET was then used to analyze the in vivo expression of six different SAP genes of C. albicans, SAP1-SAP6, in various animal models. It could be demonstrated that the individual protease genes are indeed differentially regulated, depending on the type of the infection, i.e. locally restricted mucosal infection or systemic infection, and the stage of an infection. Even the highly homologous SAP4-SAP6 genes, which from the results of in vitro experiments had been supposed to be hyphae-specific genes, were differentially regulated in vivo. SAP5 and SAP6, but not the other SAP genes, were significantly activated in a mouse model of oesophageal candidiasis when C. albicans hyphae invaded into the epithelium. A stage-specific expression of SAP genes was observed in a mouse model of Candida peritonitis. Soon after inoculation of C. albicans yeasts into the peritoneal cavity, before hyphae formation was observed, SAP5 but not SAP6 or any of the other SAP genes analyzed was activated in a significant part of the infecting cell population. Therefore, SAP5 seems to be important for tissue invasion during mucosal infection and also during the initial steps of a disseminated infection. By intravenous inoculation of C. albicans into mice, thereby bypassing the early infection stages, it was demonstrated that expression of SAP5 and SAP6, but also SAP4, continued into the later stages of a disseminated infection. In contrast, an induction of the SAP2 gene was observed predominantly in the late stages of a systemic infection, when the fungal cells had spread to deep organs. Hence, SAP2 presumably supports the multiplication of the fungal cells within the infected organs, perhaps by providing nutrient supply, rather than the invasion into host tissues. The in vivo regulation of SAP2 was shown to be influenced by certain repeat structures in the promotor region of this gene. In the C. albicans model strain CAI4 that was used in this study even the two SAP2 alleles, which differed in this repeat region, were differentially regulated during the course of a systemic infection, the SAP2-2 allele being induced at an earlier infection stage than the SAP2-1 allele. In contrast to the other SAP genes, expression of SAP1 and SAP3 could be detected in only few infecting cells, and a role in pathogenicity could not be attributed to these genes in the infection models used in this work. During the course of an infection C. albicans presumably employs many different virulence factors at the same time in order to achieve the best possible adaptation to the corresponding host niche. Yet, a question that has hardly been addressed but may enhance our understanding of the host-microbe interactions is whether different properties of the fungal cell are regulated in a coordinated fashion by specific host signals. At least two signal transduction pathways, a MAP kinase cascade and a cAMP-dependent pathway ending in the transcriptional regulators CPH1 and EFG1, respectively, control hyphae formation in C. albicans. As dimorphic growth is important for infection and because expression of the genes SAP4-SAP6 is linked to the hyphal growth form in vitro, a possible dependence of hyphae-associated SAP gene expression on these regulators was analyzed by studying SAP5 expression in corresponding signal transduction mutants. SAP5 activation in vivo was reduced in cph1 as well as in efg1 single mutants. Therefore, both CPH1 and EFG1 contribute to SAP5 activation during infection. Since the cph1 mutant formed hyphae in infected tissue as efficiently as the wild-type strain, hyphae formation alone evidently was not sufficient for full SAP5 induction in vivo. On the other hand, induction of SAP5 in vivo did not depend on the hyphal growth form, because a reduced but still significant SAP5 expression was also detected in the efg1 mutant that grew only in the yeast form in the infected animals. In cells defective in both of the regulators an induction of SAP5 was hardly detectable. Therefore, these signalling pathways are important for the control of various cellular programs during infection and coordinate the expression of different virulence genes in C. albicans. The in vivo analysis of virulence gene expression of C. albicans provided insights into regulatory adaptation mechanisms of the pathogen in various host niches. The individual members of a virulence gene family of this fungus are differentially and stage-specifically regulated during infection and thus presumably contribute very specifically to pathogenesis. Moreover, various virulence traits can be regulated in a coordinated fashion during infection and in this way together support the adaptability of C. albicans to the host. Overall, these findings enhance our understanding of the pathogenicity of this important opportunistic fungal pathogen. KW - Candida albicans KW - Virulenz KW - Genexpression KW - Pilzinfektionen KW - Virulenzmechanismen KW - Genregulation KW - Reportergene KW - In Vivo Expressionstechnologie KW - Proteasen KW - Candida albicans KW - fungal infections KW - virulence mechanisms KW - gene regulation KW - reporter genes KW - in vivo expression technology KW - Candida albicans Y1 - 2001 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-1179875 ER - TY - THES A1 - Yang, Shaoxian T1 - The role of NFAT proteins in Rag and Nfatc1a Gene Regulation in Murine Thymus T1 - Die Rolle von NFAT Proteinen in Rag und Nfatc1a Gen-Anordnung in Murine Thymus N2 - In this thesis we have investigated the effect of NFAT (Nuclear Factor of Activated T Cell) transcription factors on the expression of Rag-(Recombination Activating Genes) genes in murine thymus. The protein products of Rag genes, RAG1 and RAG2, are critical for the recombination and generation of the TCR (T Cell Receptor) repertoire during thymocyte development, and their expression can be suppressed by the activity of NFAT factors. In thymus, the expression of Rag1 and Rag2 genes is induced at the double-negative (DN, CD4-8-) 3 stage, down-regulated at the DN4 stage, re-induced at the double-positive (DP, CD4+8+) stage, and suppressed again at the single-positive (SP, CD4+8- or CD4-8+) stage. Although it is known that TCR signaling suppresses the expression of Rag1 and Rag2 at the SP stage, the signals that mediate the Rag gene down-reulation remain elusive. Here we report that both the calcineurin-NFAT-signaling and MAPKinase signaling pathways, which are activated by TCR signaling during positive selection, mediate the Rag gene down-regulation in DP thymocytes. The calcineurin-NFAT pathway suppresses both the Rag1 and the Rag2 gene expression. This pathway has a stronger suppressive effect on the Rag1 than the Rag2 gene. A synergistic activity between the two NFAT factors NFATc2 and NFATc3 is essential for calcineurin-NFAT signaling to efficiently suppress the Rag gene expression in DP thymocytes. It is likely that the calcineurin-NFAT signaling down-regulates Rag gene expression by suppressing both the Rag anti-silencer element (ASE) activity and the Rag promoter activity. Similarly, MEK-ERK signaling of MAPK signaling pathway mediates the Rag gene suppression in DP thymocytes although the mechanism through which MEK-ERK mediates the Rag gene down-regulation has to be elucidated. In DN thymocytes, it appears that neither the calcineurin-NFAT signaling nor MAPK signaling is involved in the Rag gene down-regulation. However, a role for these two signaling pathways in the Rag gene up-regulation in DN thymocytes is not excluded. In DN thymocytes, pre-TCR signaling stimulates the expression both Nfatc1 and Nfatc2 genes but has no effect on Nfatc3 gene expression. In DN thymocytes, pre-TCR signaling activates Nfatc1α expression but not Nfatc1ß expression, i.e. the two promoters controling Nfatc1 gene xpression are differently controled by pre-TCR signals. Nfatc1α gene expression in DN thymocytes is mainly regulated by the MAPK signaling pathway because activation of Nfatc1α is mediated by MEK-ERK signaling but opposed by JNK signaling. Calcineuirn-NFAT and p38 signaling pathways are not involved in Nfatc1α promoter regulation in DN thymocytes. In DP thymocytes, TCR signaling up-regulates Nfatc1 and Nfatc2 expression but down-regulates Nfatc3 expression. In DP thymocytes, TCR signaling activates Nfatc1α expression. The activation of Nfatc1α in DP thymocytes is mediated by NFATc1, but not or to a less degree by NFATc2 and NFATc3. MEK-ERK, JNK, and p38 signaling pathways are involved in Nfatc1α gene activation in DP thymocytes, probably by activating NFAT trans-activation activity. All these findings illustrate that in thymocytes the expression of NFAT transcription factors – which are essential for thymic development - is controled at multiple levels. N2 - Wir haben in den experimentellen Arbeiten zu dieser Dissertation den Effekt der NFAT (Nuclear Factor of Activated T Cell)-Transkriptionsfaktoren auf die Expression der Rag (Recombination Activating)-Gene im Thymus der Maus untersucht. Die Proteine der beiden Rag-Gene, RAG1 und RAG2, sind entscheidend für die Bildung des TCR (T Zell-Rezeptor)-Repertoires, und ihre Expression wird durch die NFATs supprimiert. Während der Thymozyten-Entwicklung wird die Expression der Rag1- und Rag2-Gene in DN (double negative, CD4-8-) 3-Thymozyten induziert, in DN4-Thymozyten „herunterreguliert“, re-induziert in DP (double positive, CD4+8+)-Thymozyten und supprimiert in SP (single positive, CD4+8- oder CD4-8+) Thymozyten. Obwohl bekannt ist, dass der TCR-Signalweg die Expression von Rag1 und Rag2 in SP-Thymozyten supprimiert, sind die daran beteiligten Signale weitgehend unbekannt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass sowohl der Calcineurin-NFAT-Signalweg als auch der MAP Kinase-Signalweg die Rag-Gen- „Herunterregulierung“ in DP-Thymozyten vermitteln. Beide Wege werden über TCR-Signale während der positiven Selektion aktiviert. Der Calcineurin-NFAT-Signalweg supprimiert die Genexpression von Rag1 und Rag2, wobei Rag1 stärker betroffen ist. Dabei ist eine synergistische Aktiviät zwischen den beiden NFAT-Transkriptionsfaktoren NFATc2 und NFATc3 im Calcineurin-NFAT-Signalweg notwendig, um die Rag Genexpression in DP Thymozyten „herunterzuregulieren“. Der Calcineurin-NFAT-Signalweg reguliert offensichtlich die Rag-Genexpression durch eine Unterdrückung der Rag anti-silencer-element-(ASE)-Aktivität und der Rag-Promotoraktivität. Auch die MEK-ERK-Signalkaskade des MAPK-Signalwegs ist an der Suppression des Rag- Gens in DP Thymozyten beteiligt, wobei der Mechanismus zu untersuchen bleibt. In DN-Thymozyten hingegen scheinen weder der Calcineurin-NFAT-Signalweg noch der MAPK-Signalweg an der Hemmung der Rag-Genaktivität beteiligt zu sein. Eine Beteiligung dieser beiden Signalwege bei der Rag-Gen-Aktivierung in DN-Thymozyten kann hingegen nicht ausgeschlossen werden. In DN-Thymozyten regulieren Prä-TCR-Signale eine stärkere Expression der beiden NFAT-Faktoren Nfatc1 und Nfatc2, wohingegen Nfatc3 unbeeinflusst bleibt. In DN-Thymozyten aktivieren die Prä-TCR-Signale die Expression von Nfatc1α, aber nicht von Nfatc1ß. Die Nfatc1α Genexpression wird vermutlich hauptsächlich über den MAPK-Signalweg reguliert, da eine Aktivierung von Nfatc1α über MEK-ERK Signale vermittelt wird und JNK Signale gegensätzlich wirken. Der Calcineurin-NFAT- und der p38-Signalweg spielen keine Rolle bei der Regulation von Nfatc1α in DN-Thymozyten. In DP-Thymozyten erfolgt durch TCR-Signale eine Aktivierung der Nfatc1- und Nfatc2- sowie eine Represson der Nfatc3-Genexpression. In DP-Thymozyten aktivieren die TCR-Signale die Nfatc1α Expression. Die Aktivierung von Nfatc1α in DP Thymozyten wird über NFATc1 autoreguliert. NFATc2 und NFATc3 sind daran wenig oder gar nicht beteiligt. Hingegen sind MEK-ERK-, JNK- und p38-Signalwege bei der Nfatc1α−Genaktivierung in DP-Thymozyten - wahrscheinlich durch die Aktivierung der NFAT Transaktivierungsaktivität - beteiligt. All diese Daten zeigen, dass die NFAT-Transkriptonsfaktoren einer komplexen Regulation in Thymozyten unterzogen sind, deren Entwicklung sie andererseits – wie z.B. durch die Suppression der Rag-Gene – maßgeblich beeinflussen. KW - NFAT KW - rag KW - thymus KW - Gen-Anordnung KW - NFAT KW - rag KW - thymus KW - gene regulation Y1 - 2007 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-23691 ER -