TY - JOUR A1 - Schielmann, Marta A1 - Szweda, Piotr A1 - Gucwa, Katarzyna A1 - Kawczyński, Marcin A1 - Milewska, Maria J. A1 - Martynow, Dorota A1 - Morschhäuser, Joachim A1 - Milewski, Sławomir T1 - Transport deficiency is the molecular basis of \(Candida\) \(albicans\) resistance to antifungal oligopeptides JF - Frontiers in Microbiology N2 - Oligopeptides incorporating \(N3\)-(4-methoxyfumaroyl)-L-2,3-diaminopropanoic acid (FMDP), an inhibitor of glucosamine-6-phosphate synthase, exhibited growth inhibitory activity against \(Candida\) \(albicans\), with minimal inhibitory concentration values in the 0.05–50 μg mL\(^{-1}\) range. Uptake by the peptide permeases was found to be the main factor limiting an anticandidal activity of these compounds. Di- and tripeptide containing FMDP (F2 and F3) were transported by Ptr2p/Ptr22p peptide transporters (PTR) and FMDP-containing hexa-, hepta-, and undecapeptide (F6, F7, and F11) were taken up by the oligopeptide transporters (OPT) oligopeptide permeases, preferably by Opt2p/Opt3p. A phenotypic, apparent resistance of \(C. albicans\) to FMDP-oligopeptides transported by OPT permeases was triggered by the environmental factors, whereas resistance to those taken up by the PTR system had a genetic basis. Anticandidal activity of longer FMDP-oligopeptides was strongly diminished in minimal media containing easily assimilated ammonium sulfate or L-glutamine as the nitrogen source, both known to downregulate expression of the OPT genes. All FMDP-oligopeptides tested were more active at lower pH and this effect was slightly more remarkable for peptides F6, F7, and F11, compared to F2 and F3. Formation of isolated colonies was observed inside the growth inhibitory zones induced by F2 and F3 but not inside those induced by F6, F7, and F11. The vast majority (98%) of those colonies did not originate from truly resistant cells. The true resistance of 2% of isolates was due to the impaired transport of di- and to a lower extent, tripeptides. The resistant cells did not exhibit a lower expression of \(PTR2\), \(PTR22\), or \(OPT1–3\) genes, but mutations in the \(PTR2\) gene resulting in T422H, A320S, D119V, and A320S substitutions in the amino acid sequence of Ptr2p were found. KW - microbiology KW - Candida albicans KW - oligopeptides KW - resistance mechanism KW - permease KW - antifungals Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-173245 VL - 8 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Peters, Simon A1 - Kaiser, Lena A1 - Fink, Julian A1 - Schumacher, Fabian A1 - Perschin, Veronika A1 - Schlegel, Jan A1 - Sauer, Markus A1 - Stigloher, Christian A1 - Kleuser, Burkhard A1 - Seibel, Juergen A1 - Schubert-Unkmeir, Alexandra T1 - Click-correlative light and electron microscopy (click-AT-CLEM) for imaging and tracking azido-functionalized sphingolipids in bacteria JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Sphingolipids, including ceramides, are a diverse group of structurally related lipids composed of a sphingoid base backbone coupled to a fatty acid side chain and modified terminal hydroxyl group. Recently, it has been shown that sphingolipids show antimicrobial activity against a broad range of pathogenic microorganisms. The antimicrobial mechanism, however, remains so far elusive. Here, we introduce 'click-AT-CLEM', a labeling technique for correlated light and electron microscopy (CLEM) based on the super-resolution array tomography (srAT) approach and bio-orthogonal click chemistry for imaging of azido-tagged sphingolipids to directly visualize their interaction with the model Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis at subcellular level. We observed ultrastructural damage of bacteria and disruption of the bacterial outer membrane induced by two azido-modified sphingolipids by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Click-AT-CLEM imaging and mass spectrometry clearly revealed efficient incorporation of azido-tagged sphingolipids into the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria as underlying cause of their antimicrobial activity. KW - antimicrobials KW - biological techniques KW - imaging KW - microbiology KW - microbiology techniques KW - microscopy Y1 - 2021 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-259147 VL - 11 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Lodha, Manivel A1 - Muchsin, Ihsan A1 - Jürges, Christopher A1 - Juranic Lisnic, Vanda A1 - L’Hernault, Anne A1 - Rutkowski, Andrzej J. A1 - Prusty, Bhupesh K. A1 - Grothey, Arnhild A1 - Milic, Andrea A1 - Hennig, Thomas A1 - Jonjic, Stipan A1 - Friedel, Caroline C. A1 - Erhard, Florian A1 - Dölken, Lars T1 - Decoding murine cytomegalovirus JF - PLOS Pathogens N2 - The genomes of both human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) were first sequenced over 20 years ago. Similar to HCMV, the MCMV genome had initially been proposed to harbor ≈170 open reading frames (ORFs). More recently, omics approaches revealed HCMV gene expression to be substantially more complex comprising several hundred viral ORFs. Here, we provide a state-of-the art reannotation of lytic MCMV gene expression based on integrative analysis of a large set of omics data. Our data reveal 365 viral transcription start sites (TiSS) that give rise to 380 and 454 viral transcripts and ORFs, respectively. The latter include 200 small ORFs, some of which represented the most highly expressed viral gene products. By combining TiSS profiling with metabolic RNA labelling and chemical nucleotide conversion sequencing (dSLAM-seq), we provide a detailed picture of the expression kinetics of viral transcription. This not only resulted in the identification of a novel MCMV immediate early transcript encoding the m166.5 ORF, which we termed ie4, but also revealed a group of well-expressed viral transcripts that are induced later than canonical true late genes and contain an initiator element (Inr) but no TATA- or TATT-box in their core promoters. We show that viral upstream ORFs (uORFs) tune gene expression of longer viral ORFs expressed in cis at translational level. Finally, we identify a truncated isoform of the viral NK-cell immune evasin m145 arising from a viral TiSS downstream of the canonical m145 mRNA. Despite being ≈5-fold more abundantly expressed than the canonical m145 protein it was not required for downregulating the NK cell ligand, MULT-I. In summary, our work will pave the way for future mechanistic studies on previously unknown cytomegalovirus gene products in an important virus animal model. KW - virology KW - genetics KW - molecular biology KW - immunology KW - microbiology KW - parasitology KW - murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) Y1 - 2023 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-350480 SN - 1553-7374 VL - 19 IS - 5 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Krohn-Molt, Ines A1 - Alawi, Malik A1 - Förstner, Konrad U. A1 - Wiegandt, Alena A1 - Burkhardt, Lia A1 - Indenbirken, Daniela A1 - Thieß, Melanie A1 - Grundhoff, Adam A1 - Kehr, Julia A1 - Tholey, Andreas A1 - Streit, Wolfgang R. T1 - Insights into microalga and bacteria interactions of selected phycosphere biofilms using metagenomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic approaches JF - Frontiers in Microbiology N2 - Microalga are of high relevance for the global carbon cycling and it is well-known that they are associated with a microbiota. However, it remains unclear, if the associated microbiota, often found in phycosphere biofilms, is specific for the microalga strains and which role individual bacterial taxa play. Here we provide experimental evidence that \(Chlorella\) \(saccharophila\), \(Scenedesmus\) \(quadricauda\), and \(Micrasterias\) \(crux-melitensis\), maintained in strain collections, are associated with unique and specific microbial populations. Deep metagenome sequencing, binning approaches, secretome analyses in combination with RNA-Seq data implied fundamental differences in the gene expression profiles of the microbiota associated with the different microalga. Our metatranscriptome analyses indicates that the transcriptionally most active bacteria with respect to key genes commonly involved in plant–microbe interactions in the Chlorella (Trebouxiophyceae) and Scenedesmus (Chlorophyceae) strains belong to the phylum of the α-Proteobacteria. In contrast, in the Micrasterias (Zygnematophyceae) phycosphere biofilm bacteria affiliated with the phylum of the Bacteroidetes showed the highest gene expression rates. We furthermore show that effector molecules known from plant-microbe interactions as inducers for the innate immunity are already of relevance at this evolutionary early plant-microbiome level. KW - microbiology KW - microalga-bacteria interaction KW - phycosphere biofilm KW - metagenomics KW - metatranscriptomics KW - metaproteomics Y1 - 2017 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-173701 VL - 2017 IS - 8 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Gehrke, Thomas A1 - Scherzad, Agmal A1 - Hagen, Rudolf A1 - Hackenberg, Stephan T1 - Deep neck infections with and without mediastinal involvement: treatment and outcome in 218 patients JF - European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology N2 - Purpose Infections of the deep neck, although becoming scarcer due to the widespread use of antibiotics, still represent a dangerous and possibly deadly disease, especially when descending into the mediastinum. Due to the different specialities involved in the treatment and the heterogenous presentation of the disease, therapeutic standard is still controversial. This study analyzes treatment and outcome in these patients based on a large retrospective review and proposes a therapeutic algorithm. Methods The cases of 218 adult patients treated with deep neck abscesses over a 10-year period at a tertiary university hospital were analyzed retrospectively. Clinical, radiological, microbiological and laboratory findings were compared between patients with and without mediastinal involvement. Results Forty-five patients (20.64%) presented with abscess formation descending into the mediastinum. Those patients had significantly (all items p < 0.0001) higher rates of surgical interventions (4.27 vs. 1.11) and tracheotomies (82% vs. 3.4%), higher markers of inflammation (CRP 26.09 vs. 10.41 mg/dl), required more CT-scans (3.58 vs. 0.85), longer hospitalization (39.78 vs 9.79 days) and more frequently needed a change in antibiotic therapy (44.44% vs. 6.40%). Multi-resistant pathogens were found in 6.67% vs. 1.16%. Overall mortality rate was low with 1.83%. Conclusion Despite of the high percentage of mediastinal involvement in the present patient collective, the proposed therapeutic algorithm resulted in a low mortality rate. Frequent CT-scans, regular planned surgical revisions with local drainage and lavage, as well as an early tracheotomy seem to be most beneficial regarding the outcome. KW - tracheotomy KW - deep neck infection KW - mediastinitis KW - surgical drainage KW - microbiology Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-266814 SN - 1434-4726 VL - 279 IS - 3 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Duske, Helene A1 - Claus, Heike A1 - Krone, Manuel A1 - Lâm, Thiên-Trí T1 - Prevalence of piperacillin/tazobactam resistance in invasive \(Haemophilus\) \(influenzae\) in Germany JF - JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance N2 - Background Haemophilus influenzae (Hi) is a Gram-negative bacterium that may cause sepsis or meningitis, treatment of which mainly includes β-lactam antibiotics. Since 2019 EUCAST breakpoints for piperacillin/tazobactam have been available. Little is known about the prevalence and mechanisms of piperacillin/tazobactam resistance in Hi. Objectives To provide reliable prevalence data for piperacillin/tazobactam resistance in Hi in Germany, to evaluate different antibiotic susceptibility testing methods and to examine possible resistance mechanisms. Methods According to EUCAST breakpoints, the MIC for piperacillin/tazobactam resistance is >0.25 mg/L. All invasive Hi in Germany from 2019 were examined by gradient agar diffusion (GAD) for piperacillin/tazobactam susceptibility. Piperacillin/tazobactam broth microdilution (BMD), piperacillin GAD on tazobactam-containing agar [piperacillin GAD on Mueller–Hinton agar with horse blood (MH-F)/tazobactam) and piperacillin/tazobactam agar dilution (AD) were used for confirmation. Phenotypic testing was complemented by ftsI sequencing. Results Piperacillin/tazobactam GAD resulted in 2.9% (21/726) resistant Hi. BMD did not confirm piperacillin/tazobactam resistance. Two strains were found resistant by AD, of which one was also resistant using piperacillin GAD on MH-F/tazobactam. Overall, we found two strains with a piperacillin/tazobactam MIC >0.25 mg/L in at least two different tests (0.3%). Both were β-lactamase-producing amoxicillin/clavulanate-resistant with PBP3 mutations characterized as group III-like+. Relevant PBP3 mutations occurred in six strains without phenotypic piperacillin/tazobactam resistance. These mutations suggest a reduced efficacy of β-lactam antibiotics in these isolates. Conclusions Piperacillin/tazobactam resistance prevalence in invasive Hi is low in Germany. Reduced susceptibility was correlated with PBP3 mutations, in particular with group III mutations. KW - microbiology KW - immunology KW - generalized anxiety disorder KW - haemophilus influenzae KW - agar KW - Germany KW - piperacillin KW - piperacillin/tazobactam KW - tazobactam KW - Haemophilus influenzae Y1 - 2024 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-350424 SN - 2632-1823 VL - 6 IS - 1 ER - TY - THES A1 - Costea, Paul Igor T1 - Stratification and variation of the human gut microbiota T1 - Stratifikation und Variation des menschlichen Darmmikrobioms N2 - The microbial communities that live inside the human gastrointestinal tract -the human gut microbiome- are important for host health and wellbeing. Characterizing this new “organ”, made up of as many cells as the human body itself, has recently become possible through technological advances. Metagenomics, the high-throughput sequencing of DNA directly from microbial communities, enables us to take genomic snapshots of thousands of microbes living together in this complex ecosystem, without the need for isolating and growing them. Quantifying the composition of the human gut microbiome allows us to investigate its properties and connect it to host physiology and disease. The wealth of such connections was unexpected and is probably still underestimated. Due to the fact that most of our dietary as well as medicinal intake affects the microbiome and that the microbiome itself interacts with our immune system through a multitude of pathways, many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the observed correlations, though most have yet to be understood in depth. An obvious prerequisite to characterizing the microbiome and its interactions with the host is the accurate quantification of its composition, i.e. determining which microbes are present and in what numbers they occur. Historically, standard practices have existed for sample handling, DNA extraction and data analysis for many years. However, these were generally developed for single microbe cultures and it is not always feasible to implement them in large scale metagenomic studies. Partly because of this and partly because of the excitement that new technology brings about, the first metagenomic studies each took the liberty to define their own approach and protocols. From early meta-analysis of these studies it became clear that the differences in sample handling, as well as differences in computational approaches, made comparisons across studies very difficult. This restricts our ability to cross-validate findings of individual studies and to pool samples from larger cohorts. To address the pressing need for standardization, we undertook an extensive comparison of 21 different DNA extraction methods as well as a series of other sample manipulations that affect quantification. We developed a number of criteria for determining the measurement quality in the absence of a mock community and used these to propose best practices for sampling, DNA extraction and library preparation. If these were to be accepted as standards in the field, it would greatly improve comparability across studies, which would dramatically increase the power of our inferences and our ability to draw general conclusions about the microbiome. Most metagenomics studies involve comparisons between microbial communities, for example between fecal samples from cases and controls. A multitude of approaches have been proposed to calculate community dissimilarities (beta diversity) and they are often combined with various preprocessing techniques. Direct metagenomics quantification usually counts sequencing reads mapped to specific taxonomic units, which can be species, genera, etc. Due to technology-inherent differences in sampling depth, normalizing counts is necessary, for instance by dividing each count by the sum of all counts in a sample (i.e. total sum scaling), or by subsampling. To derive a single value for community (dis-)similarity, multiple distance measures have been proposed. Although it is theoretically difficult to benchmark these approaches, we developed a biologically motivated framework in which distance measures can be evaluated. This highlights the importance of data transformations and their impact on the measured distances. Building on our experience with accurate abundance estimation and data preprocessing techniques, we can now try and understand some of the basic properties of microbial communities. In 2011, it was proposed that the space of genus level variation of the human gut microbial community is structured into three basic types, termed enterotypes. These were described in a multi-country cohort, so as to be independent of geography, age and other host properties. Operationally defined through a clustering approach, they are “densely populated areas in a multidimensional space of community composition”(source) and were proposed as a general stratifier for the human population. Later studies that applied this concept to other datasets raised concerns about the optimum number of clusters and robustness of the clustering approach. This heralded a long standing debate about the existence of structure and the best ways to determine and capture it. Here, we reconsider the concept of enterotypes, in the context of the vastly increased amounts of available data. We propose a refined framework in which the different types should be thought of as weak attractors in compositional space and we try to implement an approach to determining which attractor a sample is closest to. To this end, we train a classifier on a reference dataset to assign membership to new samples. This way, enterotypes assignment is no longer dataset dependent and effects due to biased sampling are minimized. Using a model in which we assume the existence of three enterotypes characterized by the same driver genera, as originally postulated, we show the relevance of this stratification and propose it to be used in a clinical setting as a potential marker for disease development. Moreover, we believe that these attractors underline different rules of community assembly and we recommend they be accounted for when analyzing gut microbiome samples. While enterotypes describe structure in the community at genus level, metagenomic sequencing can in principle achieve single-nucleotide resolution, allowing us to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and other genomic variants in the gut microbiome. Analysis methodology for this level of resolution has only recently been developed and little exploration has been done to date. Assessing SNPs in a large, multinational cohort, we discovered that the landscape of genomic variation seems highly structured even beyond species resolution, indicating that clearly distinguishable subspecies are prevalent among gut microbes. In several cases, these subspecies exhibit geo-stratification, with some subspecies only found in the Chinese population. Generally however, they present only minor dispersion limitations and are seen across most of our study populations. Within one individual, one subspecies is commonly found to dominate and only rarely are several subspecies observed to co-occur in the same ecosystem. Analysis of longitudinal data indicates that the dominant subspecies remains stable over periods of more than three years. When interrogating their functional properties we find many differences, with specific ones appearing relevant to the host. For example, we identify a subspecies of E. rectale that is lacking the flagellum operon and find its presence to be significantly associated with lower body mass index and lower insulin resistance of their hosts; it also correlates with higher microbial community diversity. These associations could not be seen at the species level (where multiple subspecies are convoluted), which illustrates the importance of this increased resolution for a more comprehensive understanding of microbial interactions within the microbiome and with the host. Taken together, our results provide a rigorous basis for performing comparative metagenomics of the human gut, encompassing recommendations for both experimental sample processing and computational analysis. We furthermore refine the concept of community stratification into enterotypes, develop a reference-based approach for enterotype assignment and provide compelling evidence for their relevance. Lastly, by harnessing the full resolution of metagenomics, we discover a highly structured genomic variation landscape below the microbial species level and identify common subspecies of the human gut microbiome. By developing these high-precision metagenomics analysis tools, we thus hope to contribute to a greatly improved understanding of the properties and dynamics of the human gut microbiome. N2 - Die mikrobiellen Gemeinschaften innerhalb des menschlichen Darmtrakts – das menschliche Darm-Mikrobiom - sind wichtig für das Wohlbefinden und die Gesundheit des Wirts. Die Charakterisierung dieses neuen “Organs”, welches aus ähnlich vielen Zellen besteht wie der menschliche Körper, ist in jüngster Zeit durch technologische Fortschritte möglich geworden. Die Metagenomik, die direkte Hochdurchsatz-Sequenzierung mikrobieller DNA, ermöglicht die Aufnahme “genomischer Schnappschüsse” tausender verschiedener, in einem komplexen Ökosystem zusammenlebender Bakterien, ohne dafür auf deren Isolierung und Wachstum angewiesen zu sein. Die Quantifizierung des menschlichen Mikrobioms erlaubt es uns, seine Eigenschaften zu untersuchen und Verbindungen zu Wirtsphysiologie und -krankheiten zu knüpfen. Der Reichtum dieser Informationen ist unerwartet hoch und wahrscheinlich noch immer unterbewertet. Aufgrund der Tatsache, dass der Großteil unserer Ernährung und unseres Medikamentenkonsums unser Mikrobiom, welches wiederum selbst über verschiedene Arten mit unserem Immunsystem interagiert, beeinflusst, wurden viele Mechanismen vorgeschlagen, um die beobachteten Korrelationen zu erklären. Die meisten davon sind jedoch noch nicht vollständig verstanden. Eine offensichtliche Komponente zur Charakterisierung des Mikrobioms und dessen Interaktionen mit dem Wirt ist eine akkurate Quantifizierung seiner genauen Zusammensetzung, womit sowohl die Anwesenheit von bestimmten Bakterien als auch deren Anzahl gemeint ist. Obwohl etablierte Standardprozeduren zur Probenbehandlung, DNA- Extrahierung und Datenanalyse existieren, sind sie nicht immer für metagenomische Studien anwendbar, da sie für isolierte Bakterienkulturen entwickelt worden. Deswegen und auch wegen der Begeisterung, die neuartige Technologien mit sich bringen, nahmen sich die ersten metagenomischen Studien jeweils die Freiheit, ihre eigenen Protokolle und Herangehensweisen zu definieren. Die Metaanalyse dieser Studien zeigte, dass Unterschiede sowohl in der Probenbehandlung als auch in der statistischen Auswertung den Vergleich zwischen Studien sehr schwierig machen. Das wiederum beschneidet unsere Fähigkeit, Entdeckungen zu bestätigen und Daten über Studien hinweg zu kombinieren. Um die zwingend notwendige Standardisierung voranzutreiben haben wir einen umfassenden Vergleich von 21 verschiedenen DNA-Extraktionsmethoden sowie verschiedener weiterer Probenbehandlungen, welche Quantifizierungen beeinflussen, vorgenommen. Wir haben eine Reihe von Kriterien entwickelt, um die Messqualität in Abwesenheit von Mock-Kontrollen zu bestimmen und schlagen anhand dieser Methoden für Probenbeschaffung, DNA-Extraktion und Library- Generierung optimale Verfahren vor. Wenn diese als Standard akzeptiert werden, würde das eine stark verbesserte Vergleichbarkeit zwischen Studien ermöglichen und damit sowohl einen extremen Zuwachs an statistischer Power als auch unserer Fähigkeit, generelle Schlüsse über das Mikrobiom zu ziehen, zur Folge haben. Die meisten metagenomischen Studien teilen ihre Datensätze auf um Vergleiche anzustellen, z.B. zwischen Stuhlproben gesunder und erkrankter Menschen. Eine Vielzahl verschiedener Ansätze, welche wiederum oft mit verschiedenen Datenvorbehandlungen kombiniert werden, wurden vorgeschlagen, um Dissimilarität zwischen Gemeinschaften (Beta-Diversität) zu berechnen. Um metagenomische Daten auf Spezies-, Genus- und höheren Ebenen zu quantifizieren werden üblicherweise reads auf Referenzgenome bestimmter taxonomischer Einheiten aligniert und gezählt. Aufgrund technologieabhängiger Unterschiede in Sequenziertiefe müssen reads normalisiert werden, z.B. indem man alle counts durch die Gesamtanzahl der counts einer Sequenzierung teilt (total sum scaling), oder durch subsampling. Für die Messung der Gemeinschafts(dis)similarität wurden viele Distanzmaße vorgeschlagen. Da es schwierig ist diese Ansätze theoretisch zu vergleichen, haben wir ein biologisch motiviertes Konzept entwickelt, mit dem man Distanzmaße evaluieren kann. Dies unterstreicht die Wichtigkeit der Datentransformation und dessen Einwirkung auf Distanzmaße. Aufbauend auf unserer Erfahrung mit Häufigkeitsabschätzungen und Techniken zur Datenvorbehandlung können wir nun versuchen, grundlegende Eigenschaften mikrobieller Gemeinschaften zu verstehen. 2011 wurde vorgeschlagen, dass sich die Variation auf Genusebene im menschlichen Darm auf drei grundlegende Typen beschränkt, welche Enterotypen getauft wurden. Diese wurden in Datensätzen verschiedener Länder als unabhängig von Herkunft, Alter und anderer Wirtseigenschaften beschrieben. Die Enterotypen sind durch einen Cluster-Ansatz als „dicht besiedelte Bereiche in einem multidimensionalen Raum der Gemeinschaftszusammensetzung“ definiert und wurden als grundlegende Stratifikatoren für die menschlichen Population vorgeschlagen. Spätere Studien, welche dieses Konzept auf andere Datensätze anwandten, erhoben Zweifel bezüglich der optimalen Anzahl an Clustern und an der generellen Robustheit des Ansatzes. Dies leitete erneut eine langanhaltende Debate über die Existenz von Strukturen und die besten Wege, diese zu bestimmen und einzufangen, ein. Hier überdenken wir, in Anbetracht der stark gestiegenen Anzahl an verfügbaren Daten, das Enterotypen-Konzept. Wir schlagen ein überarbeitetes Konzept vor, in welchem die verschiedenen Enterotypen als schwache Attraktoren im multidimensionalen Raum verstanden werden und implementieren einen Ansatz zur Berechnung des Attraktors, der dem Datensatz am ähnlichsten ist. Dafür trainieren wir einen Klassifizierer auf einen Referenz- Datensatz, um neue Datensätze zuzuordnen. Damit ist Enterotypisierung nicht mehr datensatzabhängig und der Effekt von sampling bias ist minimiert. Indem wir ein Modell nutzen für das wir die Existenz dreier Enterotypen (definiert durch die selben Genera wie ursprünglich postuliert) annehmen, zeigen wir die Relevanz dieser Stratifikation und schlagen es in einem klinischen Zusammenhang als potentiellen Marker für Krankheitsfortschritt vor. Außerdem glauben wir, dass diese Attraktoren verschiedene Regeln mikrobieller Zusammensetzung widerspiegeln und schlagen vor, sie bei der Analyse von mikrobiellen Daten zu berücksichtigen. Während Enterotypen Struktur in der Gemeinschaft auf Genusebene beschreiben, kann metagenomische Sequenzierung prinzipiell Auflösung auf Nukleotidebene erreichen, womit single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) und andere genomische Variationen im Darm- Mikrobiom identifiziert werden können. Analysemethoden für dieses Auflösungsniveau wurden erst kürzlich entwickelt und bis heute wurden diese erst wenig erforscht. Wir zeigen, dass die Landschaft an genomischer Variation von SNPs in einer großen, multinationalen Kohorte sogar über die Speziesebene hinaus geht und hochgradig strukturiert ist, was das Vorkommen klar abgrenzbarer Subspezies unter Darmmikroben suggeriert. In mehreren Fällen zeigen diese Subspezies geographische Stratifikation, wobei einige Subspezies nur in chinesischen Populationen vorkommen. Im Allgemein zeigen Sie jedoch nur eine geringfügige Beschränkung der Dispersion und sind in der Mehrzahl der Populationen vorhanden. Innerhalb eines Individuums dominiert häufig eine bestimmte Subspezies, nur selten dominieren verschieden gemeinsam im gleichen Ökosystem. Eine Analyse von Zeitreihenexperimenten deutet darauf hin, dass die dominante Subspezies über Zeiträume von mehr als drei Jahren stabil bleibt. Wenn man ihre funktionalen Eigenschaften untersucht findet man viele Unterschiede, von denen bestimmte relevant für den Wirt erscheinen. Zum Beispiel identifizieren wir eine Subspezies von E. rectale, welcher das Flagellum-Operon fehlt, die signifikant assoziiert ist mit geringerem BMI und geringerer Insulinresistenz ihres Wirts; sie korreliert zudem mit höherer mikrobieller Diversität. Diese Assoziationen konnten auf Speziesebene nicht gesehen werden (auf der mehrere Subspezies überlagert sind), was die Wichtigkeit dieser erhöhten Auflösung für ein umfassenderes Verständnis mikrobieller Interaktionen innerhalb des Mikrobioms und mit dem Wirt illustriert. Zusammenfassend bieten unsere Ergebnisse eine präzise Grundlage für vergleichende Metagenomik des menschlichen Darms, einschließlich Empfehlungen über experimentelles Sampling und statistische Analysen. Weiterhin verfeinern wir das Konzept der Enterotypen- Stratifikation in Gemeinschaften, entwickeln referenzbasierte Ansätze für Enterotypen- Zuordnung und bieten überzeugende Beweise für ihre Relevanz. Indem wir die volle Auflösung metagenomischer Sequenzierungen nutzen entdecken wir eine Landschaft hochgradig strukturierter genomischer Variation unterhalb der Speziesebene und identifizieren gemeinsame Subspezies des menschlichen Darm-Mikrobioms. Durch die Entwicklung dieser hochpräzisen metagenomischen Untersuchungsansätze tragen wir zu einem verbesserten KW - metagenomics KW - microbiology KW - Mensch KW - Darmflora KW - Metagenom Y1 - 2016 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-139649 ER -