TY - THES A1 - Schmitt, Nadine J. B. T1 - What is integrity and how do we use it? – Enhancing the validity of integrity by reviewing integrity tests, expanding the nomological network, and reducing faking T1 - Was ist Integrität und wie nutzen wir sie? – Verbesserung der Validität von Integrität durch Überprüfung von Integritätstests, Erweiterung des nomologischen Netzwerkes und Reduzierung von Faking N2 - This dissertation focuses on the construct and criterion validity of integrity tests and aims to enhance both. To accomplish this goal, three approaches were adopted: First, an overview and systematic comparison of integrity tests was conducted with reference to the construction and application of the tests. Second, the nomological network of integrity tests was expanded with reference to honesty-humility and organizational citizenship behavior at their factor and facet level. Third, two promising methods to reduce faking on integrity tests were tested: the double rating method (Hui, 2001) and the indirect questioning technique. In line with previous research, the results of the overview and comparison of integrity measures confirmed that integrity tests are multidimensional and heterogenous. A clear definition of integrity is urgently needed. The personality trait of honesty-humility and its facets of fairness, and modesty revealed the most significant relationships to integrity. Moreover, organizational citizenship behavior and its facets of altruism, conscientiousness, and sportsmanship were found to significantly relate to integrity. Furthermore, integrity tests were able not only to predict organizational citizenship behavior but also to incrementally predict job performance and organizational citizenship behavior beyond the factor and facet level of the personality traits of conscientiousness and honesty-humility. In contrast to the indirect questioning technique, the double rating method, which includes an other rating and a self rating, was shown to be able to significantly reduce faking on integrity tests in an anonymous survey setting. This dissertation makes an important contribution to better explain the construct and nomological network of integrity, provide a more detailed view on integrity tests and their protection against faking, and expand the predictive and incremental validity of these tests. The implications for future research and practice are further discussed. N2 - Der Fokus dieser Dissertation liegt sowohl auf der Konstrukt- als auch auf der Kriteriumsvalidität von Integritätstests und deren Erhöhung mit Hilfe von drei Ansätzen: (a) Ein Überblick und systematischer Vergleich von Integritätstests mit Bezug auf deren Konstruktion und Anwendung wird erstellt. (b) Das nomologische Netzwerk von Integrität wird erweitert mit Bezug auf Honesty-Humility und freiwilligem Arbeitsverhalten sowohl auf Faktoren- als auch Facettenebene. (c) Zwei vielversprechende Ansätze, um Faking in Integritätstests zu reduzieren, werden getestet: die Doppelte Fragemethode (Hui, 2001) und indirektes Fragen. Im Ergebnis zeigte sich, dass die Multidimensionalität und Heterogenität von Integritätstests bestätigt wurde. Eine klare Definition von Integrität ist dringend notwendig. Mit Blick auf das nomologische Netzwerk zeigte Honesty-Humility und deren Facetten Fairness und Bescheidenheit die höchsten signifikanten Korrelationen mit Integrität. Beim freiwilligen Arbeitsverhalten und deren Facetten Altruismus, Gewissenhaftigkeit und Unkompliziertheit wurden ebenfalls signifikante Zusammenhänge gefunden. Des Weiteren zeigte sich, dass Integritätstests inkrementelle Validität besitzen über die Faktoren und Facetten von Gewissenhaftigkeit und Honesty-Humility hinaus bei der Vorhersage von beruflicher Leistung und bei der Vorhersage von freiwilligem Arbeitsverhalten. Im Hinblick auf die Reduzierung von Faking zeigte nur die Doppelte Fragemethode (d.h. Fremd- und Selbsteinschätzung der Items) in der anonymen Forschungssituation eine signifikante Reduzierung. Diese Dissertation leistet einen wichtigen Beitrag zum besseren Verständnis des Konstruktes und nomologischen Netzwerkes der Integrität, bietet einen detaillierten Einblick in Integritätstests sowie deren Schutz vor Faking und verbessert die prognostische und inkrementelle Validität von Integritätstests. Die Implikationen für zukünftige Forschung und Praxis werden weiterführend diskutiert. KW - Integrität KW - Integrity KW - Integrity tests KW - Validity KW - Honesty-humility KW - OCB KW - Integrität KW - Integritätstests KW - Validität KW - Honesty-Humility KW - Freiwilliges Arbeitsverhalten KW - Psychologie Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-260468 ER - TY - THES A1 - Großekathöfer, Jonas David T1 - Virtually Valid? On the Importance of Ecological Validity and Virtual Reality for Social Attention Research T1 - Praktischerweise Valide? Über die Bedeutung von ökologischer Validität und virtueller Realität in der sozialen Aufmerksamkeitsforschung N2 - Gazes are of central relevance for people. They are crucial for navigating the world and communicating with others. Nevertheless, research in recent years shows that many findings from experimental research on gaze behavior cannot be transferred from the laboratory to everyday behavior. For example, the frequency with which conspecifics are looked at is considerably higher in experimental contexts than what can be observed in daily behavior. In short: findings from laboratories cannot be generalized into general statements. This thesis is dedicated to this matter. The dissertation describes and documents the current state of research on social attention through a literature review, including a meta-analysis on the /gaze cueing/ paradigm and an empirical study on the robustness of gaze following behavior. In addition, virtual reality was used in one of the first studies in this research field. Virtual reality has the potential to significantly improve the transferability of experimental laboratory studies to everyday behavior. This is because the technology enables a high degree of experimental control in naturalistic research designs. As such, it has the potential to transform empirical research in the same way that the introduction of computers to psychological research did some 50 years ago. The general literature review on social attention is extended to the classic /gaze cueing/ paradigm through a systematic review of publications and a meta-analytic evaluation (Study 1). The cumulative evidence supported the findings of primary studies: Covert spatial attention is directed by faces. However, the experimental factors included do not explain the surprisingly large variance in the published results. Thus, there seem to be further, not well-understood variables influencing these social processes. Moreover, classic /gaze cueing/ studies have limited ecological validity. This is discussed as a central reason for the lack of generalisability. Ecological validity describes the correspondence between experimental factors and realistic situations. A stimulus or an experimental design can have high and low ecological validity on different dimensions and have different influences on behavior. Empirical research on gaze following behavior showed that the /gaze cueing/ effect also occurs with contextually embedded stimuli (Study 2). The contextual integration of the directional cue contrasted classical /gaze cueing/ studies, which usually show heads in isolation. The research results can thus be transferred /within/ laboratory studies to higher ecologically valid research paradigms. However, research shows that the lack of ecological validity in experimental designs significantly limits the transferability of experimental findings to complex situations /outside/ the laboratory. This seems to be particularly the case when social interactions and norms are investigated. However, ecological validity is also often limited in these studies for other factors, such as contextual embedding /of participants/, free exploration behavior (and, thus, attentional control), or multimodality. In a first study, such high ecological validity was achieved for these factors with virtual reality, which could not be achieved in the laboratory so far (Study 3). Notably, the observed fixation patterns showed differences even under /most similar/ conditions in the laboratory and natural environments. Interestingly, these were similar to findings also derived from comparisons of eye movement in the laboratory and field investigations. These findings, which previously came from hardly comparable groups, were thus confirmed by the present Study 3 (which did not have this limitation). Overall, /virtual reality/ is a new technical approach to contemporary social attention research that pushes the boundaries of previous experimental research. The traditional trade-off between ecological validity and experimental control thus becomes obsolete, and laboratory studies can closely inherit an excellent approximation of reality. Finally, the present work describes and discusses the possibilities of this technology and its practical implementation. Within this context, the extent to which this development can still guarantee a constructive classification of different laboratory tests in the future is examined. N2 - Blicke sind für Menschen von zentraler Relevanz. Sie sind entscheidend für die Navigation in der Welt und für die Kommunikation mit Mitmenschen. Dennoch zeigt die Forschung der letzten Jahre, dass sich Erkenntnisse aus der experimentellen Forschung zu Blickverhalten vom Labor nicht in alltägliches Verhalten übertragen lassen. So ist beispielsweise die Häufigkeit, mit der Mitmenschen angeschaut werden, erheblich höher in experimentellen Kontexten als das beobachtbare alltägliche Verhalten. Kurz: Erkenntnisse aus Laboren lassen sich nicht zu allgemeinen Aussagen generalisieren. Diesem Spannungsfeld ist die hier vorliegende Arbeit gewidmet. Diese Doktorarbeit beschreibt und dokumentiert den aktuellen Forschungsstand zur sozialen Aufmerksamkeit anhand einer Literaturübersicht inklusive einer Metaanalyse zum /gaze cueing/ Paradigma sowie einer empirischen Untersuchung zur Robustheit des Blickfolgeverhaltens. Zudem wird in einer der ersten Studien in diesem Forschungsfeld virtuelle Realität eingesetzt. Virtuelle Realität hat das Potenzial, die Übertragbarkeit zwischen experimentellen Laboruntersuchungen auf alltägliches Verhalten deutlich zu verbessern. Denn die Technologie ermöglicht eine hohe experimentelle Kontrolle in naturalistischen Forschungdesigns. Damit kann sie die empirische Forschung ebenso stark verändern wie die Einführung des Computers für psychologische Forschung vor rund 50 Jahren. Die Literaturübersicht über soziale Aufmerksamkeit wurde durch eine systematische Begutachtung der Publikationen und einer meta-analystische Auswertung zum klassischen /gaze cueing/ Paradigma erweitert (Studie 1). Die kumulierte Evidenz unterstützt die Befunde primärer Studien: Verdeckte räumliche Aufmerksamkeit wird durch Gesichter gelenkt. Allerdings zeigte sich eine überraschend große Varianz in den publizierten Ergebnissen, die durch die untersuchten experimentellen Faktoren nicht erklärt werden konnte. Es scheint also noch Weitere, nicht gut verstandene Einflussgrößen auf diesen sozial-kognitiven Prozess zugeben. Klassische /gaze cueing/ Studien besitzen zudem eine eingeschränkte ökologische Validität. Diese wird als ein zentraler Grund für die fehlende Generalisierbarkeit diskutiert. Ökologische Validität beschreibt die Übereinstimmung von experimentellen Faktoren mit realistischen Situationen. Ein Stimulus oder ein experimentelles Design kann auf verschiedenen Dimensionen hohe und niedrige ökologische Validität aufweisen. Dies kann auf verschiedene Verhaltensbereiche unterschiedlichen Einfluss haben. Die empirischen Untersuchungen zum Blickfolgeverhalten zeigten, dass der /gaze cueing/ Effekt auch bei kontextuell eingebundenen Stimuli auftritt (Studie 2). Die kontextuelle Einbindung des Richtungscues stellte dabei einen Kontrast zu klassichen /gaze cueing/ Studien dar, die in der Regel Köpfe in Isolation zeigen. Die Forschungsergebnisse lassen sich also /innerhalb/ von kontrollierten Laboruntersuchungen auch auf ökologisch validere Forschungsparadigmen übertragen. Forschungsarbeiten zeigen allerdings, dass die mangelnde ökologische Validität in experimentellen Designs die Übertragbarkeit von experimentellen Befunden auf komplexe Situationen /außerhalb/ des Labors erheblich einschränken. Dies scheint insbesondere der Fall zu sein, wenn soziale Interaktionen und Normen untersucht werden. Die ökologische Validität ist in diesen Studien aber auch für weitere Faktoren häufig eingeschränkt, wie beispielsweise die kontextuelle Einbettung /von Versuchspersonen/, freies Explorationsverhalten (und damit Aufmerksamkeitssteuerung) oder Multimodalität. In einer ersten Arbeit in diesem Forschungsfeld wurde für diese Faktoren mit virtueller Realität eine hohe ökologische Validität erreicht, die so bisher nicht im Labor zu erreichen war (Studie 3). Spannenderweise zeigten sich selbst unter /ähnlichsten/ Bedingungen im Labor und in der natürlichen Umgebung Unterschiede in den beobachteten Fixationsmustern. Interessanterweise sind diese ähnlich zu Befunden, die ebenfalls aus Vergleichen von Augenbewegung im Labor und Felduntersuchung stammten. Diese Befunde, die bisher auf wenig vergleichbare Untersuchungsgruppen beruhen, wurden durch die vorliegende Studie 3 (die diese Einschränkung nicht besitzt) bestätigt. Insgesamt steht der heutigen sozialen Aufmerksamkeitsforschung mit /virtueller Realität/ ein neuer technischer Ansatz zur Verfügung, der die Grenzen bisheriger experimenteller Forschung verschiebt. Die traditionelle Abwägung zwischen ökologische Validität und experimenteller Kontrolle wird damit hinfällig und in Laboruntersuchungen kann die Realität extrem nah nachgebildet werden. Abschließend werden in dieser Arbeit die Möglichkeiten und die praktische Umsetzung dieser Technologie beschrieben und diskutiert. Dabei wird auch kritisch beleuchtet, inwiefern mit dieser Entwicklung auch in Zukunft noch eine konstruktive Einordnung von verschiedenen Laboruntersuchungen gewährleistet werden kann. KW - Aufmerksamkeit KW - Validität KW - Virtuelle Realität KW - social attention KW - ecological validity KW - virtual reality KW - eye tracking Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-260417 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Gram, Maximilian A1 - Albertova, P. A1 - Schirmer, V. A1 - Blaimer, M. A1 - Gamer, M. A1 - Herrmann, M. J. A1 - Nordbeck, P. A1 - Jakob, P. M. T1 - Towards robust in vivo quantification of oscillating biomagnetic fields using Rotary Excitation based MRI JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Spin-lock based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has the potential for direct spatially-resolved detection of neuronal activity and thus may represent an important step for basic research in neuroscience. In this work, the corresponding fundamental effect of Rotary EXcitation (REX) is investigated both in simulations as well as in phantom and in vivo experiments. An empirical law for predicting optimal spin-lock pulse durations for maximum magnetic field sensitivity was found. Experimental conditions were established that allow robust detection of ultra-weak magnetic field oscillations with simultaneous compensation of static field inhomogeneities. Furthermore, this work presents a novel concept for the emulation of brain activity utilizing the built-in MRI gradient system, which allows REX sequences to be validated in vivo under controlled and reproducible conditions. Via transmission of Rotary EXcitation (tREX), we successfully detected magnetic field oscillations in the lower nano-Tesla range in brain tissue. Moreover, tREX paves the way for the quantification of biomagnetic fields. KW - functional magnetic resonance imaging KW - Rotary EXcitation (REX) KW - oscillating biomagnetic fields Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-300862 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - THES A1 - Wertgen, Andreas Gabriel T1 - The Role of Source Credibility in the Validation of Text Information T1 - Die Rolle der Quellenglaubwürdigkeit bei der Validierung von Textinformationen N2 - Numerous experiments have shown that an evaluative and passive process, known as validation, accompanies activation and integration, which are fundamental processes of text comprehension. During the construction of a mental model, validation implicitly assesses the plausibility of incoming information by checking its consistency with world knowledge, prior beliefs, and contextual information (e.g., the broader discourse context). However, research on potential influences that shape validation processes has just started. One branch of research is investigating how world knowledge and contextual information contribute to integration and validation. World knowledge usually influences validation more strongly because information plausibility is the primary criterion for validation, but strong contextual information can yield influences as well. Contextual information that may be specifically relevant for routine validation is the credibility of a source providing text information. Source credibility bears a strong conceptual relationship to the validity of information. However, a dearth of research has investigated joint effects of plausibility and source credibility for routine validation. To fill this research gap, the aim of the present dissertation was to examine the role of source credibility in routine validation processes of text information. This dissertation argues that both source credibility and plausibility are considered in these processes. In particular, information plausibility is proposed as the primary criterion, but source credibility may modulate validation as an additional criterion. To this end, three studies with five self-paced reading experiments were conducted in which reading times served as an implicit indicator of validation and plausibility judgments as an explicit indicator, and the convergence or divergence between the two indicators was interpreted. The first study examined the interplay of plausibility and source credibility for the validation of world-knowledge consistent versus inconsistent text information embedded in short narratives. This highly plausible or highly implausible information was provided by a high- or low-expertise source. In Study 1, plausibility dominated validation as suggested by faster reading times and higher plausibility judgments for world-knowledge consistent information. Importantly, source credibility modulated the validation of highly implausible information but seemed to not matter for plausible information. High-credible sources increased the implausibility of highly implausible information to a greater extent compared with low-credible sources as indicated by longer reading times and lower plausibility judgments. These results diverged from recent findings from Foy et al. (2017). The second study investigated whether the modulating role of source credibility depends on the degree of implausibility of an information. Thus, Study 2 extended Study 1 by an intermediate, somewhat implausible level of plausibility (comparable to the implausible claims in Foy et al., 2017). Similar to Study 1, plausibility dominated validation as indicated by lower reading times and plausibility judgments with higher world-knowledge inconsistency. Again, source credibility had no effect on the routine validation of plausible information. However, high-credible sources mitigated the implausibility of somewhat implausible information as indicated by faster reading times and higher plausibility judgments but exacerbated the implausibility of highly implausible information as indicated by slower reading times and lower plausibility judgments. In short, Study 2 findings not only integrates the seemingly divergent results of Study 1 and Foy et al. (2017) but also provides strong support for the assumption that the degree of implausibility determines the modulating role of source credibility for validation. The third study examined the relationship of source credibility and plausibility in an ecologically valid social media setting with short Twitter messages varying in world-knowledge and text-belief consistency by trustworthy and untrustworthy sources. In sum, plausibility and to a lesser extent source credibility mattered for routine validation and explicit evaluation of text information as indicated by reading times and plausibility judgments. However, the pattern partly diverged from Study 1 and 2, possibly because the source information was more salient. In sum, the present dissertation yielded three insights. First, the findings further extends evidence for routine validation based on world-knowledge and prior beliefs. Second, the studies suggest that source credibility can modulate validation. Readers used source credibility cues for routine validation and the explicit evaluation of text information in all studies. Third, the impact of source credibility seems to depend on the degree of implausibility of information. The present findings have theoretical implications for theories of validation and text comprehension as well as practical implications for targeting threats associated with the prevalence of inaccurate information, for example, on the World Wide Web. Future research using eye-tracking methodology could further disentangle the routine and strategic underlying processes of the relationship between source credibility and plausibility. N2 - Zahlreiche empirische Untersuchungen konnten zeigen, dass ein passiver und evaluativer Prozess – genannt Validierung – die Aktivierung und Integration von Textinformationen mit leserseitigem Vorwissen und Überzeugungen als grundlegende Prozesse des Textverstehens begleitet. Während der Konstruktion des Situationsmodells erfassen Validierungsprozesse fortlaufend und implizit die Plausibilität einer eingehenden Information, indem sie die Konsistenz mit leserseitigem Vorwissen und Überzeugungen sowie mit Kontextinformationen (z. B. vorherige Textinformationen) überprüfen. Die Erforschung weiterer Einflussgrößen für die Validierung hat jedoch gerade erst begonnen. Ein Forschungszweig beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, wie sich Kontextinformationen und Vorwissen in ihrem Beitrag zu Integrations- und Validierungsprozessen unterscheiden. Ein Befund dabei ist, dass das Vorwissen häufig einen stärkeren Einfluss auf die Validierungsprozesse hat und folglich die Informationsplausibilität das primäre Kriterium für die Validierung von Textinformationen ist. Starke Kontextinformationen können jedoch ebenfalls für die Bewertung von eingehenden Informationen herangezogen werden. Eine spezifische Kontextinformation, die eine konzeptuelle Verbindung zu der Validität einer Information hat und daher eine besondere Relevanz für die Validierung von Textinformationen besitzt, ist die Glaubwürdigkeit der Quelle, die eine Textinformation liefert. Es gibt jedoch nur vereinzelte Studien, die das interaktive Zusammenspiel der Informationsplausibilität und Quellenglaubwürdigkeit für die Validierung von Textinformationen untersucht haben. Die vorliegende Dissertation setzt an dieser Lücke an und untersucht die Rolle der Quellenglaubwürdigkeit für die routinierte Validierung von Textinformationen. Dabei wird angenommen, dass sowohl die Plausibilität als auch die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit in diesen Prozessen berücksichtigt werden. Die Plausibilität einer Information sollte hierbei das primäre Kriterium sein, das zur Validierung herangezogen wird, aber die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit sollte als zusätzliches Kriterium genutzt werden und die Prozesse potentiell zu modulieren. Zur Überprüfung dieser Annahmen wurden drei Lesezeitstudien mit insgesamt fünf Experimenten durchgeführt. Ob implizite und explizite Maße konvergieren oder divergieren ist aufschlussreich für die Untersuchung der Prozesse des Textverstehens. Daher dienten die Lesezeit als implizites Maß für Validierungsprozesse und die Beurteilung der Plausibilität einer Textinformation als explizites Maß in allen Studien. Die erste Studie untersuchte die Beziehung von Plausibilität und Quellenglaubwürdigkeit bei der Validierung von Textinformationen, die konsistent (plausibel) oder inkonsistent (stark unplausibel) mit dem Vorwissen waren. Diese Textinformationen waren eingebettet in kurzen Geschichten und wurden von einer Quelle mit viel bzw. wenig Expertise hinsichtlich des angesprochenen Wissensbereichs geäußert. In Studie 1 führten plausible Textinformationen zu kürzeren Lesezeiten und höheren Plausibilitätsurteilen als stark unplausible Textinformationen. Für plausible Informationen schien die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit keine Rolle zu spielen, jedoch führten glaubwürdige Quellen zu höheren Lesezeiten und niedrigeren Plausibilitätsurteilen bei stark unplausiblen Informationen. Studie 1 legt nahe, dass die Konsistenz mit dem Vorwissen das Hauptkriterium für die Validierung war und die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit als zusätzliches Kriterium die Validierung unplausibler Informationen modulieren kann, jedoch in der Wirkrichtung scheinbar abweichend zu aktuellen Befunden ist (Foy et al., 2017). Die zweite Studie untersuchte, ob die in Studie 1 gefundene, modulierende Rolle der Quellenglaubwürdigkeit für Validierungsprozesse vom Grad der Unplausibilität einer Information abhängt. Hierzu wurden die Konzeption und die Materialien der ersten Studie um eine mittlere Plausibilitätsstufe, die als „etwas unplausibel“ bezeichnet werden kann, erweitert; sonst waren die Studien sehr ähnlich. In Studie 2 zeigte sich ein dreigestufter Plausibilitätseffekt abhängig von der Konsistenz mit dem Vorwissen. Plausible Textinformationen wurden schneller gelesen und als plausibler beurteilt als etwas unplausible Informationen. Diese wiederum wurden schneller gelesen und als plausibler eingeschätzt als stark unplausible Informationen. Erneut wurde die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit während des Lesens plausibler Informationen nicht berücksichtigt, modulierte aber die Validierung unplausibler Informationen. Glaubwürdige Quellen verglichen mit unglaubwürdigen Quellen führten zu kürzeren Lesezeiten und einer höher eingeschätzten Plausibilität für etwas unplausible Informationen, aber verlängerten die Lesezeiten und verringerten die Plausibilitätsurteile stark unplausibler Informationen – letzteres war identisch mit dem Ergebnis von Studie 1. Studie 2 zeigt, dass die Plausibilität einer Information das Hauptkriterium für wissensbasierte Validierungsprozesse war. Wenn Informationen einen gewissen Grad an Unplausibilität erreichen, können glaubwürdige Quellen die Plausibilität eigentlich unplausibler Informationen erhöhen oder sogar weiter verringern. Die Ergebnisse von Studie 2 belegen die Annahme, dass der Grad der Unplausibilität einer Information die modulierende Rolle der Glaubwürdigkeit einer Quelle bestimmt und darüber hinaus werden die Befunde von Studie 1 und Foy et al. (2017) integriert. Die dritte Studie untersuchte die Beziehung von Plausibilität und Quellenglaubwürdigkeit eingebettet in einem sozialen Medium mit kurzen Twitter-Nachrichten als ein ökologisch valider Kontext. Die Nachrichten unterschieden sich in der vom Text vermittelten Überzeugung und der Vorwissenskonsistenz. Diese Nachrichten wurden präsentiert von stark und wenig vertrauenswürdigen Quellen. Zusammenfassend zeigen Lesezeiten und Plausibilitätsurteile, dass die Informationsplausibilität und in einem geringeren Maße die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit für die routinierte Validierung und explizite Bewertung der Textinformationen von Bedeutung waren, aber mit einem teilweise abweichenden Muster zu Studie 1 und 2. Eine mögliche Erklärung könnte in den stark salienten Quelleninformationen in Studie 3 liegen. Zusammengefasst hat die vorliegende Dissertation drei Erkenntnisse erbracht. Erstens, die Befundlage für routinierte Validierungsprozesse basierend auf der Plausibilität einer Information wurde erweitert. Zweitens, die Studien legen nahe, dass die Glaubwürdigkeit einer Quelle dabei auch eine Rolle spielt: in allen Studien nutzten die Leserinnen und Leser die Quellenglaubwürdigkeit als zusätzlichen Hinweis zur Validierung und zur expliziten Plausibilitätsbewertung von Textinformationen. Drittens, die Stärke und die Richtung des Einflusses der Quellenglaubwürdigkeit für die wissensbasierte Validierung von Textinformationen scheint vom Grad der Unplausibilität einer Information abzuhängen. Diese Ergebnisse erlauben Schlussfolgerungen für Theorien der Validierung und des Textverstehens sowie praktische Implikationen für die Bekämpfung von möglichen Folgen, die mit der Verbreitung von Falschinformationen verbunden sind. Zukünftige Experimente basierend auf Blickbewegungen könnten helfen die routinierten und strategischen Prozesse genauer zu trennen, die die Beziehung von Quellenglaubwürdigkeit und Plausibilität für die Validierung bestimmen. KW - Textverstehen KW - Plausibilität KW - Trustworthiness KW - Credibility KW - Validation KW - Source Credibility KW - Text Comprehension KW - Plausibility KW - Sourcing Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-288619 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tibken, Catharina A1 - Richter, Tobias A1 - Linden, Nicole von der A1 - Schmiedeler, Sandra A1 - Schneider, Wolfgang T1 - The role of metacognitive competences in the development of school achievement among gifted adolescents JF - Child Development N2 - Gifted underachievers perform worse in school than would be expected based on their high intelligence. Possible causes for underachievement are low motivational dispositions (need for cognition) and metacognitive competences. This study tested the interplay of these variables longitudinally with gifted and non-gifted students from Germany (N = 341, 137 females) in Grades 6 (M = 12.02 years at t1) and 8 (M = 14.07 years). Declarative and procedural metacognitive competences were assessed in the domain of reading comprehension. Path analyses showed incremental effects of procedural metacognition over and above intelligence on the development of school achievement in gifted students (β = .139). Moreover, declarative metacognition and need for cognition interactively predicted procedural metacognition (β = .169), which mediated their effect on school achievement. KW - metacognitive competences KW - high intelligence KW - school Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-258376 VL - 93 IS - 1 ER - TY - THES A1 - Madeira, Octavia T1 - The Human-Experimental Virtual Elevated Plus-Maze as an Anxiety Model T1 - Das human-experimentelle virtuelle Elevated Plus-Maze als Angstmodell N2 - Anxiety research is one of the major psychological research domains and looks back on decades of research activity. Traditionally, novel theories and approaches are tested utilizing animal models. One way to study inherent anxiety in rodents is the elevated plus-maze (EPM). The EPM is a plus-shaped platform with two closed, i.e., walled, arms and two open unwalled arms. If given the opportunity to freely explore the apparatus, rodents instinctively avoid the open arms to protect themselves from predators. Hence, they spent less time on open and more time on closed arms, which is behaviorally associated with general anxiety. In the course of the pharmacological validation, it was found that this exploratory pattern can be reversed by anxiolytic substances, e.g., benzodiazepines, or potentiated by anxiogenics. One of the significant advantages of the EPM is that no prior training session is required in contrast to conditioning studies, thus allowing to observe natural behavior. Therefore, together with the economic and uncomplicated setup, the EPM has become a standard preclinical rodent anxiety test over the decades. In order to validate these rodent anxiety tests, there have recently been attempts to retranslate them to humans. A paramount of cross-species validation is not only the simple transferability of these animal tests but also the observation of anxiety behaviors that are evolutionarily conserved across species. Accordingly, it could be possible to conclude various factors associated with the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders in humans. So far, convincing translations of the EPM to humans are still lacking. For that reason, the primary aim of this dissertation is to retranslate the EPM throughout three studies and to evaluate cross-species validity critically. Secondly, the undertaken studies are set out to observe ambulatory activity equivalent to rodent EPM behavior, i.e., open arm avoidance. Thirdly, the undertaken studies aimed to assess the extent to which trait anxiety influences human exploratory activity on the platform to associate it with the assumption that rodent EPM-behavior is a reflection of general anxiety. Finally, virtual reality (VR) was the method of choice to maintain the economic advantage and adjust the EPM size to humans. Study 1 (N = 30) was set up to directly transfer the rodent EPM regarding test design and experimental procedure using a Computer Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). The results revealed that humans unlike rodents display a general open arms approach during free exploration. However, open arm avoidance was associated with high trait anxiety and acrophobia (fear of height), which was initially assessed as a control variable due to the virtual platform height. Regression analyses and subjective anxiety ratings hinted at a more significant influence of acrophobia on open arm avoidance. In addition, it was assumed that the open arms approach might have resulted from claustrophobic tendencies experienced in the closed arms due to the high walls. Study 2 (N = 61) sought to differentiate the influence of trait anxiety and acrophobia and adapt the virtual EPM to humans. Therefore, parts of the platform held a semi-transparent grid-floor texture, and the wall height on the closed arms was reduced to standard handrail level. Moreover, participants were priorly screened to exclude clinically significant levels of acrophobia, claustrophobia, and agoraphobia. The data on general exploratory activity showed no arm preference. Regression analyses confirmed that acrophobia is related to open arm avoidance, corroborating the finding of Study 1. Surprisingly, for trait anxiety, the result of Study 1 could not be replicated. Instead, for trait anxiety, no significant effect was found indicating that predominantly fear of heights shapes human EPM behavior even on a subclinical stage. In Study 3 (N = 57), the EPM was embedded into a city setting to 1) create a more natural human environment and 2) eliminate height. Furthermore, a head-mounted display was utilized for VR presentation, and arousal ratings were introduced. Participants were screened for high and low levels of trait anxiety and agoraphobia, and claustrophobia. Replicating the findings of Study 2, no difference in open and closed arm activity was observed, and no effect was found in relationship with trait anxiety. The data on anxiety ratings and claustrophobia suggest a positive correlation indicating that in this city EPM, claustrophobic tendencies might play a role in closed arm avoidance. In summary, this thesis added valuable insights into the retranslation of a well-established standard anxiety test used in rodents. However, it also majorly challenges current findings on the cross-species validity of the EPM. Various explanatory models for the results are critically discussed and associated with clinical implications concerning future research. N2 - Die Angstforschung ist eines der wichtigsten psychologischen Forschungsgebiete und blickt auf eine jahrzehntelange Forschungstätigkeit zurück. Traditionell werden neue Theorien und Ansätze anhand von Tiermodellen getestet. Eine Möglichkeit, inhärente Angst bei Nagetieren zu untersuchen, ist das Elevated Plus-Maze (EPM). Das EPM ist eine plusförmige Plattform mit zwei geschlossenen, d. h. mit Wänden versehenen, Armen und zwei offenen, nicht mit Wänden umschlossenen, Armen. Wenn Nagetiere die Möglichkeit haben, die Plattform frei zu erkunden, meiden sie instinktiv die offenen Arme, um sich vor Fressfeinden zu schützen, d.h. sie verbringen weniger Zeit in den offenen und mehr Zeit in den geschlossenen Armen, was verhaltensmäßig mit Ängstlichkeit assoziiert wird. Im Rahmen der pharmakologischen Validierung wurde festgestellt, dass dieses Explorationsmuster durch anxiolytische Substanzen, z. B. Benzodiazepine, umgekehrt oder durch anxiogene Substanzen verstärkt werden kann. Einer der wesentlichen Vorteile des EPM ist, dass im Gegensatz zu Konditionierungsstudien kein vorheriges Training erforderlich ist und somit natürliches Verhalten beobachtet werden kann. Zusammen mit dem ökonomischen und unkomplizierten Versuchsaufbau hat sich das EPM daher im Laufe der Jahrzehnte zu einem Standardtest für präklinische Angstforschung bei Nagern entwickelt. Um diese Angsttests von Nagern zu validieren, wurde kürzlich versucht, diese auf den Menschen zu übertragen. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für die artenübergreifende Validierung ist nicht nur die einfache Translation dieser Tiertests, sondern auch die Beobachtung von Angstverhalten, das evolutionär über alle Arten hinweg konserviert ist. Darauf aufbauend könnte es möglich sein, auf verschiedene Faktoren zu schließen, die mit der Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung von Angststörungen beim Menschen in Verbindung stehen. Bislang fehlt es noch an einer überzeugenden Übertragung des EPM auf den Menschen. Aus diesem Grund besteht das primäre Ziel dieser Dissertation darin, das EPM in drei Studien neu zu übersetzen und die speziesübergreifende Validität kritisch zu bewerten. Zweitens sollen die durchgeführten Studien eine dem EPM-Verhalten von Nagetieren äquivalente Bewegungsaktivität beobachten, d.h. die Vermeidung offener Arme. Drittens zielten die durchgeführten Studien darauf ab, das Ausmaß zu bewerten, in dem Angstmerkmale das Explorationsverhalten des Menschen auf der Plattform beeinflussen, um sie mit der Annahme in Verbindung zu bringen, dass das EPM-Verhalten von Nagetieren Ängstlichkeit repräsentiert. Schließlich war die virtuelle Realität (VR) die Methode der Wahl, um die ökonomische Validität zu erhalten und das EPM in seiner Größe an den Menschen anpassen zu können. In Studie 1 (N = 30) wurde das Tier-EPM hinsichtlich des Testdesigns und des Versuchsablaufs unter Verwendung einer computergesteuerten virtuellen Umgebung (CAVE) direkt auf den Menschen übertragen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass Menschen im Gegensatz zu Nagern während der freien Exploration generell eine Annäherung zu den offenen Armen zeigen. Die Vermeidung offener Arme war jedoch mit hoher Traitängstlichkeit und Akrophobie (Höhenangst) verbunden, die aufgrund der Höhe der virtuellen Plattform zunächst als Kontrollvariable erhoben wurde. Regressionsanalysen und subjektive Angstbewertungen deuteten auf einen stärkeren Einfluss der Akrophobie auf die Vermeidung der offenen Arme hin. Darüber hinaus wurde angenommen, dass die Vermeidung der offenen Arme aus klaustrophobischen Tendenzen resultieren könnte, die in den geschlossenen Armen aufgrund der hohen Wände auftreten. In Studie 2 (N = 61) wurde versucht, den Einfluss von Traitängstlichkeit und Akrophobie zu differenzieren und das virtuelle EPM an den Menschen anzupassen. Daher waren Teile der Plattform mit einer halbtransparenten Gitterbodenstruktur versehen, und die Wandhöhe in den geschlossenen Armen wurde auf die Höhe eines Standardgeländers reduziert. Darüber hinaus wurden die Versuchsteilnehmer vorselektiert um klinisch signifikante Werte von Akrophobie, Klaustrophobie und Agoraphobie auszuschließen. Die Daten zu generellem Explorationsverhalten zeigten, dass keine Armpräferenz besteht. Die durchgeführte Regressionsanalyse demonstrierte, dass die Vermeidung der offenen Arme mit Akrophobie zusammenhängt, was die Ergebnisse von Studie 1 bestätigt. Überraschenderweise konnte das Ergebnis von Studie 1 in Bezug auf Traitängstlichkeit nicht repliziert werden. Stattdessen wurde für Ängstlichkeit kein signifikanter Effekt gefunden, was darauf hindeutet, dass hauptsächlich Höhenangst das menschliche EPM-Verhalten sogar in einem subklinischen Stadium prägt. In Studie 3 (N = 57) wurde das EPM in eine städtische Umgebung eingebettet, um 1) eine für den Menschen natürlichere Umgebung zu schaffen und 2) den Faktor Höhe zu eliminieren. Darüber hinaus wurde für die VR-Präsentation eine Virtual-Reality-Brille verwendet, und Arousalratings eingeführt. Die Teilnehmer wurden auf hohe und niedrige Werte von Traitängstlichkeit und Agoraphobie sowie Klaustrophobie untersucht. Wie in Studie 2 konnte kein Unterschied zwischen der Explorationstendenzen der offenen und der geschlossenen Arme beobachtet werden, und es wurde kein Effekt in Bezug auf die erhobenen Angstmerkmale festgestellt. Die Daten zu Angstbewertungen und Klaustrophobie deuten auf eine positive Korrelation hin, was darauf bedeutet, dass bei diesem Stadt-EPM klaustrophobische Tendenzen eine Rolle bei der Vermeidung des geschlossenen Arms spielen könnten. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass diese Arbeit wertvolle Einblicke in die Retranslation eines gut etablierten Standard-Angsttests für Nager liefert. Sie stellt jedoch auch die derzeitigen Erkenntnisse über die artenübergreifende Validität des EPM in Frage. Verschiedene Erklärungsmodelle für die Ergebnisse werden kritisch diskutiert und mit klinischen Implikationen für die zukünftige Forschung verbunden. KW - Virtuelle Realität KW - Angststörung KW - Elevated Plus-Maze KW - Explorationsverhalten Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-281478 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rodrigues, Johannes A1 - Ziebell, Philipp A1 - Müller, Mathias A1 - Hewig, Johannes T1 - Standardizing continuous data classifications in a virtual T-maze using two-layer feedforward networks JF - Scientific Reports N2 - There continues to be difficulties when it comes to replication of studies in the field of Psychology. In part, this may be caused by insufficiently standardized analysis methods that may be subject to state dependent variations in performance. In this work, we show how to easily adapt the two-layer feedforward neural network architecture provided by Huang1 to a behavioral classification problem as well as a physiological classification problem which would not be solvable in a standardized way using classical regression or “simple rule” approaches. In addition, we provide an example for a new research paradigm along with this standardized analysis method. This paradigm as well as the analysis method can be adjusted to any necessary modification or applied to other paradigms or research questions. Hence, we wanted to show that two-layer feedforward neural networks can be used to increase standardization as well as replicability and illustrate this with examples based on a virtual T-maze paradigm\(^{2−5}\) including free virtual movement via joystick and advanced physiological data signal processing. KW - standardized analysis method KW - neural network architecture KW - two‑layer feedforward networks Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301096 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Neszmélyi, Bence A1 - Weller, Lisa A1 - Kunde, Wilfried A1 - Pfister, Roland T1 - Social action effects: representing predicted partner responses in social interactions JF - Frontiers in Human Neuroscience N2 - The sociomotor framework outlines a possible role of social action effects on human action control, suggesting that anticipated partner reactions are a major cue to represent, select, and initiate own body movements. Here, we review studies that elucidate the actual content of social action representations and that explore factors that can distinguish action control processes involving social and inanimate action effects. Specifically, we address two hypotheses on how the social context can influence effect-based action control: first, by providing unique social features such as body-related, anatomical codes, and second, by orienting attention towards any relevant feature dimensions of the action effects. The reviewed empirical work presents a surprisingly mixed picture: while there is indirect evidence for both accounts, previous studies that directly addressed the anatomical account showed no signs of the involvement of genuinely social features in sociomotor action control. Furthermore, several studies show evidence against the differentiation of social and non-social action effect processing, portraying sociomotor action representations as remarkably non-social. A focus on enhancing the social experience in future studies should, therefore, complement the current database to establish whether such settings give rise to the hypothesized influence of social context. KW - motor control KW - action effects KW - action representation KW - sociomotor control KW - ideomotor theory Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-276609 SN - 1662-5161 VL - 16 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kirsch, Wladimir A1 - Kunde, Wilfried T1 - Perceptual changes after learning of an arbitrary mapping between vision and hand movements JF - Scientific Reports N2 - The present study examined the perceptual consequences of learning arbitrary mappings between visual stimuli and hand movements. Participants moved a small cursor with their unseen hand twice to a large visual target object and then judged either the relative distance of the hand movements (Exp.1), or the relative number of dots that appeared in the two consecutive target objects (Exp.2) using a two-alternative forced choice method. During a learning phase, the numbers of dots that appeared in the target object were correlated with the hand movement distance. In Exp.1, we observed that after the participants were trained to expect many dots with larger hand movements, they judged movements made to targets with many dots as being longer than the same movements made to targets with few dots. In Exp.2, another group of participants who received the same training judged the same number of dots as smaller when larger rather than smaller hand movements were executed. When many dots were paired with smaller hand movements during the learning phase of both experiments, no significant changes in the perception of movements and of visual stimuli were observed. These results suggest that changes in the perception of body states and of external objects can arise when certain body characteristics co-occur with certain characteristics of the environment. They also indicate that the (dis)integration of multimodal perceptual signals depends not only on the physical or statistical relation between these signals, but on which signal is currently attended. KW - vision KW - hand movements KW - learning arbitrary mappings Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301074 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rodrigues, Johannes A1 - Weiß, Martin A1 - Mussel, Patrick A1 - Hewig, Johannes T1 - On second thought … the influence of a second stage in the ultimatum game on decision behavior, electro-cortical correlates and their trait interrelation JF - Psychophysiology N2 - Previous EEG research only investigated one stage ultimatum games (UGs). We investigated the influence of a second bargaining stage in an UG concerning behavioral responses, electro-cortical correlates and their moderations by the traits altruism, anger, anxiety, and greed in 92 participants. We found that an additional stage led to more rejection in the 2-stage UG (2SUG) and that increasing offers in the second stage compared to the first stage led to more acceptance. The FRN during a trial was linked to expectance evaluation concerning the fairness of the offers, while midfrontal theta was a marker for the needed cognitive control to overcome the respective default behavioral pattern. The FRN responses to unfair offers were more negative for either low or high altruism in the UG, while high trait anxiety led to more negative FRN responses in the first stage of 2SUG, indicating higher sensitivity to unfairness. Accordingly, the mean FRN response, representing the trait-like general electrocortical reactivity to unfairness, predicted rejection in the first stage of 2SUG. Additionally, we found that high trait anger led to more rejections for unfair offer in 2SUG in general, while trait altruism led to more rejection of unimproving unfair offers in the second stage of 2SUG. In contrast, trait anxiety led to more acceptance in the second stage of 2SUG, while trait greed even led to more acceptance if the offer was worse than in the stage before. These findings suggest, that 2SUG creates a trait activation situation compared to the UG. KW - bargaining behavior KW - two-stage ultimatum game KW - reward positivity/FRN/MFN/N2 KW - trait activation in two-stage ultimatum game, KW - midfrontal theta KW - fairness evaluation vs. cognitive effort KW - EEG Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318983 VL - 59 IS - 7 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Käthner, Ivo A1 - Eidel, Matthias A1 - Häge, Anne-Sophie A1 - Gram, Annika A1 - Pauli, Paul T1 - Observing physicians acting with different levels of empathy modulates later assessed pain tolerance JF - British Journal of Health Psychology N2 - Objectives The patient–physician relationship is essential for treatment success. Previous studies demonstrated that physicians who behave empathic in their interaction with patients have a positive effect on health outcomes. In this study, we investigated if the mere perception of physicians as empathic/not empathic modulates pain despite an emotionally neutral interaction with the patients. Methods N = 60 women took part in an experimental study that simulated a clinical interaction. In the paradigm, each participant watched two immersive 360° videos via a head-mounted display from a patient’s perspective. The physicians in the videos behaved either empathic or not empathic towards a third person. Importantly, these physicians remained emotionally neutral in the subsequent virtual interaction with the participants. Finally, participants received a controlled, painful pressure stimulus within the narratives of the videos. Results The physicians in the high compared with the low empathy videos were rated as more empathic and more likable, indicating successful experimental manipulation. In spite of later neutral behaviour of physicians, this short observation of physicians’ behaviour towards a third person was sufficient to modulate pain tolerance of the participants. Conclusions The finding of this study that the mere observation of physicians’ behaviour towards a third person modulates pain, despite a neutral direct interaction with the participants, has important clinical implications. Further, the proposed paradigm enables investigating aspects of patient–physician communication that are difficult to examine in a clinical setting. KW - patient–physician relationship KW - empathy KW - psychology KW - pain KW - 360° videos Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-258368 VL - 27 IS - 2 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Abendroth, Johanna A1 - Nauroth, Peter A1 - Richter, Tobias A1 - Gollwitzer, Mario T1 - Non-strategic detection of identity-threatening information: Epistemic validation and identity defense may share a common cognitive basis JF - PLoS ONE N2 - Readers use prior knowledge to evaluate the validity of statements and detect false information without effort and strategic control. The present study expands this research by exploring whether people also non-strategically detect information that threatens their social identity. Participants (N = 77) completed a task in which they had to respond to a “True” or “False” probe after reading true, false, identity-threatening, or non-threatening sentences. Replicating previous studies, participants reacted more slowly to a positive probe (“True”) after reading false (vs. true) sentences. Notably, participants also reacted more slowly to a positive probe after reading identity-threatening (vs. non-threatening) sentences. These results provide first evidence that identity-threatening information, just as false information, is detected at a very early stage of information processing and lends support to the notion of a routine, non-strategic identity-defense mechanism. KW - social identity KW - cognitive basis KW - identity defense Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301019 VL - 17 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Murali, Supriya A1 - Händel, Barbara T1 - Motor restrictions impair divergent thinking during walking and during sitting JF - Psychological Research N2 - Creativity, specifically divergent thinking, has been shown to benefit from unrestrained walking. Despite these findings, it is not clear if it is the lack of restriction that leads to the improvement. Our goal was to explore the effects of motor restrictions on divergent thinking for different movement states. In addition, we assessed whether spontaneous eye blinks, which are linked to motor execution, also predict performance. In experiment 1, we compared the performance in Guilford's alternate uses task (AUT) during walking vs. sitting, and analysed eye blink rates during both conditions. We found that AUT scores were higher during walking than sitting. Albeit eye blinks differed significantly between movement conditions (walking vs. sitting) and task phase (baseline vs. thinking vs. responding), they did not correlate with task performance. In experiment 2 and 3, participants either walked freely or in a restricted path, or sat freely or fixated on a screen. When the factor restriction was explicitly modulated, the effect of walking was reduced, while restriction showed a significant influence on the fluency scores. Importantly, we found a significant correlation between the rate of eye blinks and creativity scores between subjects, depending on the restriction condition. Our study shows a movement state-independent effect of restriction on divergent thinking. In other words, similar to unrestrained walking, unrestrained sitting also improves divergent thinking. Importantly, we discuss a mechanistic explanation of the effect of restriction on divergent thinking based on the increased size of the focus of attention and the consequent bias towards flexibility. KW - creativity KW - humans KW - sitting KW - walking KW - thinking Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-267722 SN - 1430-2772 VL - 86 IS - 7 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Eder, Andreas B. A1 - Maas, Franzisca A1 - Schubmann, Alexander A1 - Krishna, Anand A1 - Erle, Thorsten M. T1 - Motivations underlying self-infliction of pain during thinking for pleasure JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Previous research suggested that people prefer to administer unpleasant electric shocks to themselves rather than being left alone with their thoughts because engagement in thinking is an unpleasant activity. The present research examined this negative reinforcement hypothesis by giving participants a choice of distracting themselves with the generation of electric shock causing no to intense pain. Four experiments (N = 254) replicated the result that a large proportion of participants opted to administer painful shocks to themselves during the thinking period. However, they administered strong electric shocks to themselves even when an innocuous response option generating no or a mild shock was available. Furthermore, participants inflicted pain to themselves when they were assisted in the generation of pleasant thoughts during the waiting period, with no difference between pleasant versus unpleasant thought conditions. Overall, these results question that the primary motivation for the self-administration of painful shocks is avoidance of thinking. Instead, it seems that the self-infliction of pain was attractive for many participants, because they were curious about the shocks, their intensities, and the effects they would have on them. KW - pain KW - self-infliction KW - thinking Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301059 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Franz, David J. T1 - Moral responsibility for self-deluding beings JF - Philosophia N2 - In this article, I argue for four theses. First, libertarian and compatibilist accounts of moral responsibility agree that the capability of practical reason is the central feature of moral responsibility. Second, this viewpoint leads to a reasons-focused account of human behavior. Examples of human action discussed in debates about moral responsibility suggest that typical human actions are driven primarily by the agent’s subjective reasons and are sufficiently transparent for the agent. Third, this conception of self-transparent action is a questionable idealization. As shown by psychological research on self-assessment, motivated reasoning, and terror management theory, humans oftentimes have only a limited understanding of their conduct. Self-deception is rather the rule than the exception. Fourth, taking the limited self-transparency of practical reason seriously leads to a socially contextualized conception of moral responsibility. KW - moral responsibility KW - self-deception KW - reasoning biases KW - practical reasoning KW - rationalization KW - motivated reasoning Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-324871 SN - 0048-3893 VL - 50 IS - 4 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Haberstumpf, Sophia A1 - Forster, André A1 - Leinweber, Jonas A1 - Rauskolb, Stefanie A1 - Hewig, Johannes A1 - Sendtner, Michael A1 - Lauer, Martin A1 - Polak, Thomas A1 - Deckert, Jürgen A1 - Herrmann, Martin J. T1 - Measurement invariance testing of longitudinal neuropsychiatric test scores distinguishes pathological from normative cognitive decline and highlights its potential in early detection research JF - Journal of Neuropsychology N2 - Objective Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a growing challenge worldwide, which is why the search for early-onset predictors must be focused as soon as possible. Longitudinal studies that investigate courses of neuropsychological and other variables screen for such predictors correlated to mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, one often neglected issue in analyses of such studies is measurement invariance (MI), which is often assumed but not tested for. This study uses the absence of MI (non-MI) and latent factor scores instead of composite variables to assess properties of cognitive domains, compensation mechanisms, and their predictability to establish a method for a more comprehensive understanding of pathological cognitive decline. Methods An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a set of increasingly restricted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to find latent factors, compared them with the composite approach, and to test for longitudinal (partial-)MI in a neuropsychiatric test battery, consisting of 14 test variables. A total of 330 elderly (mean age: 73.78 ± 1.52 years at baseline) were analyzed two times (3 years apart). Results EFA revealed a four-factor model representing declarative memory, attention, working memory, and visual–spatial processing. Based on CFA, an accurate model was estimated across both measurement timepoints. Partial non-MI was found for parameters such as loadings, test- and latent factor intercepts as well as latent factor variances. The latent factor approach was preferable to the composite approach. Conclusion The overall assessment of non-MI latent factors may pose a possible target for this field of research. Hence, the non-MI of variances indicated variables that are especially suited for the prediction of pathological cognitive decline, while non-MI of intercepts indicated general aging-related decline. As a result, the sole assessment of MI may help distinguish pathological from normative aging processes and additionally may reveal compensatory neuropsychological mechanisms. KW - Alzheimer’s disease KW - early-onset predictors KW - mild cognitive impairment Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-318932 VL - 16 IS - 2 SP - 324 EP - 352 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Muth, Felicitas V. A1 - Heilig, Michael A1 - Marquardt, Dorothea A1 - Mittelberg, Linda A1 - Sebald, Albrecht A1 - Kunde, Wilfried T1 - Lightness perception of structured surfaces JF - Color Research and Application N2 - Visual perception of surfaces is of utmost importance in everyday life. Therefore, it comes naturally, that different surface structures evoke different visual impressions in the viewer even if the material underlying these surface structures is the same. This topic is especially virulent for manufacturing processes in which more than one stakeholder is involved, but where the final product needs to meet certain criteria. A common practice to address such slight but perceivable differences in the visual appearance of structured surfaces is that trained evaluators assess the samples and assign a pass or fail. However, this process is both time consuming and cost intensive. Thus, we conducted two studies to analyze the relationship between physical surface structure parameters and participants visual assessment of the samples. With the first experiment, we aimed at uncovering a relationship between physical roughness parameters and visual lightness perception while the second experiment was designed to test participants' discrimination sensitivity across the range of stimuli. Perceived lightness and the measured surface roughness were nonlinearly related to the surface structure. Additionally, we found a linear relationship between the engraving parameter and physical brightness. Surface structure was an ideal predictor for perceived lightness and participants discriminated equally well across the entire range of surface structures. KW - surface structure KW - appearance KW - color perception KW - maximum likelihood difference scaling KW - psychophysics Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-257314 VL - 47 IS - 2 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Franz, David J. T1 - Is Applied Ethics Morally Problematic? JF - Journal of Academic Ethics N2 - This paper argues that applied ethics can itself be morally problematic. As illustrated by the case of Peter Singer’s criticism of social practice, morally loaded communication by applied ethicists can lead to protests, backlashes, and aggression. By reviewing the psychological literature on self-image, collective identity, and motivated reasoning three categories of morally problematic consequences of ethical criticism by applied ethicists are identified: serious psychological discomfort, moral backfiring, and hostile conflict. The most worrisome is moral backfiring: psychological research suggests that ethical criticism of people’s central moral convictions can reinforce exactly those attitudes. Therefore, applied ethicists unintentionally can contribute to a consolidation of precisely those social circumstances that they condemn to be unethical. Furthermore, I argue that the normative concerns raised in this paper are not dependent on the commitment to one specific paradigm in moral philosophy. Utilitarianism, Aristotelian virtue ethics, and Rawlsian contractarianism all provide sound reasons to take morally problematic consequences of ethical criticism seriously. Only the case of deontological ethics is less clear-cut. Finally, I point out that the issues raised in this paper provide an excellent opportunity for further interdisciplinary collaboration between applied ethics and social sciences. I also propose strategies for communicating ethics effectively. KW - consequences of ethical criticism KW - applied ethics KW - motivated reasoning KW - Peter Singer KW - interdisciplinary moral philosophy KW - moral reasoning Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-269095 SN - 1572-8544 VL - 20 ER - TY - THES A1 - Karageorgos, Panagiotis T1 - Investigating Reading Fluency in German Primary School Children: Interplay of Word Reading Accuracy, Speed, and Prosody T1 - Untersuchung der Leseflüssigkeit bei deutschen Grundschulkindern: Zusammenspiel von Wortlesegenauigkeit, -geschwindigkeit und Prosodie N2 - Reading skills are among the most important basic skills in society. However, not all readers are able to adequately understand texts or decode individual words. Findings from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS; German: IGLU) show that about one fifth of fourth graders can only establish coherence at the local level, and in some cases they only have a rudimentary understanding of the text they read (Bremerich-Vos et al., 2017). In addition, these reading deficits persist and have a negative impact on academic and professional success (Jimerson, 1999). Therefore, identifying the causes of these deficits and creating opportunities for interventions at an early stage is an important research objective. The aim of this dissertation was to examine the relationship between the aspects of reading fluency and their influence on reading comprehension. Despite the increasing scientific interest in reading fluency in recent years, a research gap still exists in the relationship between word recognition accuracy and both speed and the relevance of prosodic patterns for reading comprehension. Study 1 investigated whether German fourth graders (N = 826) were required to reach a certain word-recognition accuracy threshold before their word-recognition speed improved. In addition, a sub-sample (n = 170) with a pre-/posttest design was examined to assess the extent that the existing word-recognition accuracy can influence the effects of a syllable-based reading intervention on word-recognition accuracy and word-recognition speed. Results showed that word-recognition speed improved after children achieved a word-recognition accuracy of 71%. A positive intervention effect was also found on word-recognition accuracy for children who were below the 71% threshold before the intervention, whereas the intervention effect on word-recognition speed was positive for all children. However, a positive effect on reading comprehension was only found for children who were above the 71% threshold before the intervention. Study 2 investigated the relationship between word-recognition accuracy threshold and word-recognition speed shown in the first study in a longitudinal design with German students (N = 1,095). Word-recognition accuracy and speed were assessed from the end of Grade 1 to 4, whereas reading comprehension was assessed from the end of Grade 2 to 4. The results showed that the developmental trajectories of word recognition speed and reading comprehension were steeper in children who reached the word-recognition accuracy threshold by the end of the first grade than in children who later reached or had not reached this threshold. In Study 3, recurrence analysis (RQA) was used to extract prosodic patterns from reading recordings of struggling and skilled readers in the second (n = 67) and fourth grade (n = 69) and was used for the classification into struggling and skilled readers. In addition, the classification based on the prosodic patterns from the recurrence quantification analysis was compared with the classification of prosodic features from the manual transcription of the reading recordings. The results showed that second-grade struggling readers have lengthier pauses within or between words and take more time between pauses on average, whereas fourth-grade struggling readers spend more time between recurring stresses and have multiple diverse patterns in pitch and more recurring accents. Although the recurrence analysis had a good goodness of fit and provided additional information about the relationship of prosody with reading comprehension, the model using prosodic features from transcription had a better fit. In summary, the three studies in this dissertation provide four important insights into reading fluency in German. First, a threshold in word-recognition accuracy must be achieved before word-recognition speed improves. Second, the earlier this accuracy level is reached, the greater the gain in word-recognition speed and reading comprehension. Third, the intervention effects of a primary school reading intervention are influenced by the accuracy level. Fourth, although incorrect pauses within or between words play an important role in identifying and describing struggling readers in second grade, the importance of prosodic patterns increases in fourth grade. N2 - Lesefähigkeiten zählen zu den wichtigsten Grundfertigkeiten in der heutigen Gesellschaft. Jedoch gelingt es nicht allen Lesern und Leserinnen Texte angemessen zu verstehen oder einzelne Wörter zu dekodieren. Erkenntnisse der Internationale Grundschul-Lese-Untersuchung (PIRLS; Deutsch: IGLU) belegen, dass etwa ein Fünftel der Viertklässler und Viertklässlerinnen Kohärenz nur auf lokaler Ebene herstellen können und in manchen Fällen nur über ein rudimentäres Verständnis des gelesenen Textes verfügen (Bremerich-Vos et al., 2017). Außerdem bleiben diese Lesedefizite bestehen und haben einen negativen Einfluss auf den schulischen und beruflichen Erfolg (Jimerson, 1999). Deshalb ist es wichtig die Ursachen dieser Defizite zu identifizieren und frühzeitig Möglichkeiten für Interventionen zu schaffen. Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es, den Zusammenhang zwischen den Teilaspekten der Leseflüssigkeit und deren Einfluss auf das Leseverständnis näher zu untersuchen. Trotz der zunehmenden wissenschaftlichen Beschäftigung mit der Leseflüssigkeit in den letzten Jahren, besteht hier eine Forschungslücke sowohl bezüglich des Zusammenhangs zwischen Worterkennungsgenauigkeit und -geschwindigkeit als auch bezüglich der Relevanz prosodischer Muster für das Leseverständnis. In Studie 1 wurde untersucht, ob deutsche Viertklässler und Viertklässlerinnen (N = 826) eine bestimmte Worterkennungsgenauigkeitsschwelle erreichen müssen, bevor sich ihre Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit verbessert. Darüber hinaus wurde in einer Teilstichprobe (n = 170) mit einem Prä-/Posttest Design untersucht, inwiefern die bestehende Worterkennungsgenauigkeit die Effekte einer silbenbasierten Leseintervention auf die Worterkennungsgenauigkeit und Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit beeinflussen kann. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit sich verbesserte, nachdem die Kinder eine Worterkennungsgenauigkeit von 71% erreichten. Zudem zeigten sich ein positiver Interventionseffekt auf die Worterkennungsgenauigkeit für die Kinder, die vor der Intervention unter der 71% Schwelle lagen. Auf die Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit ergab sich für alle Kinder ein positiver Interventionseffekt. Auf das Leseverständnis hingegen zeigte sich nur für die Kinder, die vor der Intervention über der 71% Schwelle lagen, ein positiver Effekt. Studie 2 untersuchte den in der ersten Studie aufgezeigten Zusammenhang zwischen Worterkennungsgenauigkeitsschwelle und Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit in einem längsschnittlichen Design mit deutschen Schülerinnen und Schüler (N = 1,095). Die Worterkennungsgenauigkeit und -geschwindigkeit wurden von Ende der Jahrgangsstufe 1 bis Jahrgangsstufe 4 erfasst, während das Leseverständnis von Ende der Jahrgangsstufe 2 bis Jahrgangsstufe 4 erfasst wurde. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Entwicklungsverläufe der Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit und des Leseverständnisses bei Kindern, die die Worterkennungsgenauigkeitsschwelle bis Ende der Jahrgangsstufe 1 erreichten, steiler waren als bei Kindern, die diese Schwelle erst später oder gar nicht erreichten. In Studie 3 wurden mit Hilfe der Rekurrenzanalyse (RQA) prosodische Muster aus der Leseaufnahmen leseschwacher und -starker Kinder der Jahrgangsstufe 2 (n = 67) und der Jahrgangsstufe 4 (n = 69) extrahiert und für die Klassifikation in leseschwach und lesestark verwendet. Darüber hinaus wurde die Klassifikation anhand der prosodischen Muster aus der Rekurrenzanalyse mit der Klassifikation prosodischer Merkmale aus der manuellen Transkription der Leseaufnahmen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass leseschwache Kinder der Jahrgangsstufe 2 längere Pausen innerhalb oder zwischen einzelnen Wörtern machen und im Durchschnitt mehr Zeit zwischen Pausen verstreichen lassen, während leseschwache Kinder der Jahrgangsstufe 4 mehr Zeit zwischen wiederkehrende Betonungen verstreichen lassen, viele Muster bei der Tonhöhe aufweisen und häufiger wiederkehrende Betonungen zeigen. Obwohl die Rekurrenzanalyse eine gute Anpassungsgüte hatte und zusätzliche Informationen zu dem Zusammenhang der Prosodie mit dem Leseverständnis lieferte, ergab sich für das Model mit den prosodischen Merkmalen aus der Transkription eine bessere Anpassungsgüte. Zusammenfassend liefern die drei Studien der vorliegenden Dissertation vier bedeutsame Erkenntnisse bezüglich der Leseflüssigkeit im Deutschen. Erstens: Es gibt eine gewisse Schwelle bei der Worterkennungsgenauigkeit, die erreicht werden muss, bevor sich die Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit verbessert. Zweitens: Je früher diese Genauigkeitsschwelle erreicht wird, desto stärker ist der Zuwachs in der Worterkennungsgeschwindigkeit und im Leseverständnis. Drittens: Die Interventionseffekte einer Leseintervention in die Grundschule werden von der Genauigkeitsschwelle beeinflusst. Viertens: Während inkorrekte Pausen innerhalb oder zwischen einzelnen Wörtern eine wichtige Rolle für die Identifikation und Beschreibung von leseschwachen Kindern in die Jahrgangsstufe 2 spielen, nimmt die Bedeutung der prosodischen Muster in der Jahrgangsstufe 4 zu. KW - Worterkennung KW - Textverstehen KW - Prosodie KW - word-reading accuracy KW - word-reading speed KW - prosody KW - primary school children Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-292612 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Eck, Julia A1 - Dignath, David A1 - Kalckert, Andreas A1 - Pfister, Roland T1 - Instant disembodiment of virtual body parts JF - Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics N2 - Evidence from multisensory body illusions suggests that body representations may be malleable, for instance, by embodying external objects. However, adjusting body representations to current task demands also implies that external objects become disembodied from the body representation if they are no longer required. In the current web-based study, we induced the embodiment of a two-dimensional (2D) virtual hand that could be controlled by active movements of a computer mouse or on a touchpad. Following initial embodiment, we probed for disembodiment by comparing two conditions: Participants either continued moving the virtual hand or they stopped moving and kept the hand still. Based on theoretical accounts that conceptualize body representations as a set of multisensory bindings, we expected gradual disembodiment of the virtual hand if the body representations are no longer updated through correlated visuomotor signals. In contrast to our prediction, the virtual hand was instantly disembodied as soon as participants stopped moving it. This result was replicated in two follow-up experiments. The observed instantaneous disembodiment might suggest that humans are sensitive to the rapid changes that characterize action and body in virtual environments, and hence adjust corresponding body representations particularly swiftly. KW - body representation KW - embodiment KW - disembodiment KW - moving rubber hand illusion KW - virtual hand illusion Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-324844 VL - 84 IS - 8 ER - TY - THES A1 - Greving, Carla Elisabeth T1 - Improving Learning from Texts: Distributed Practice and Distributed Learning as Desirable Difficulty in Reading Single and Multiple Texts T1 - Verbesserung des Lernens mit Texten: Verteiltes Üben und Verteiltes Lernen als wünschenswerte Erschwernis beim Lesen von einzelnen und multiplen Texten N2 - Distributed practice is a well-known learning strategy whose beneficial effects on long-term learning are well proven by various experiments. In learning from texts, the benefits of distribution might even go beyond distributed practice, i.e. distribution of repeated materials. In realistic learning scenarios as for example school or university learning, the reader might read multiple texts that not repeat but complement each other. Therefore, distribution might also be implemented between multiple texts and benefit long-term learning in analogy to distributed practice. The assumption of beneficial effects of this distributed learning can be deduced from theories about text comprehension as the landscape model of reading (van den Broek et al., 1996) in combination with theories of desirable difficulties in general (R. A. Bjork & Bjork, 1992) and distributed practice in particular (Benjamin & Tullis, 2010). This dissertation aims to investigate (1) whether distributed learning benefits learning; (2) whether the amount of domain-specific prior knowledge moderates the effects of distribution, (3) whether distributed learning affects the learner’s meta-cognitive judgments in analogy to distributed practice and (4) whether distributed practice is beneficial for seventh graders in learning from single text. In Experiment 1, seventh graders read two complementary texts either massed or distributed by a lag of one week between the texts. Learning outcomes were measured immediately after reading the second text and one week later. Judgements of learning were assessed immediately after each text. Experiment 2 replicated the paradigm of Experiment 1 while shortening the lag between the texts in the distributed condition to 15 min. In both experiments, an interaction effect between learning condition (distributed vs. massed) and retention interval (immediate vs. delayed) was found. In the distributed condition, the participants showed no decrease in performance between the two tests, whereas participants in the massed condition did. However, no beneficial effects were found in the delayed test for the distributed condition but even detrimental effects for the distributed condition in the immediate test. In Experiment 1, participants in the distributed condition perceived learning as less difficult but predicted lower success than the participants in the massed condition. Experiment 3 replicated the paradigm of Experiment 1 with university students in the laboratory. In the preregistered Experiment 4, an additional retention interval of two weeks was realized. In both experiments, the same interaction between learning condition and retention interval was found. In Experiment 3, the participants in the distributed condition again showed no decrease in performance between the two tests, whereas participants in the massed condition did. However, even at the longer retention interval in Experiment 4, no beneficial effects were found for the distributed condition. Domain-specific prior knowledge was positively associated with test performance in both experiments. In Experiment 4, the participants with low prior knowledge seemed to be impaired by distributed learning, whereas no difference was found for participants with medium or high prior knowledge. In the preregistered Experiment 5, seventh graders read a single text twice. The rereading took place either massed or distributed with one week. Immediately after rereading, judgements of learning were assessed. Learning outcomes were assessed four min after second reading or one week later. Participants in the distributed condition predicted lower learning success than participants in the massed condition. An interaction effect between learning condition and retention interval was found, but no advantage for the distributed condition. Participants with low domain-specific prior knowledge showed lower performance in short-answer questions in the distributed condition than in the massed condition. Overall, the results seem less encouraging regarding the effectiveness of distribution on learning from single and multiple texts. However, the experiments reported here can be perceived as first step in the realistic investigation of distribution in learning from texts. N2 - Verteiltes Üben ist eine bekannte Lernstrategie, deren positiver Effekt auf die langfristigen Behaltensleistung in vielen Experimenten gezeigt wurde. Beim Lernen mit Texten können die Vorteile der Verteilung von Lerninhalten sogar über verteiltes Üben, also die Verteilung von sich wiederholenden Materialien, hinausgehen. In realistischen Lernszenarien, wie zum Beispiel Lernen in der Schule oder Universität, werden multiple Texte gelesen, die einander nicht wiederholen, sondern ergänzen. Verteilung im Sinne des verteilten Übens könnte demensprechend auch zwischen diesen multiplen Texten eingesetzt werden und analog zum verteilten Üben langfristiges Behalten fördern. Annahmen über eine Wirksamkeit dieses sogenannten verteilten Lernens können von Theorien zum Textverständnis wie zum Beispiel dem Landscape Model of Reading (van den Broek et al., 1996) in Kombination mit Theorien zu wünschenswerten Erschwernissen im Allgemeinen (R. A. Bjork & Bjork, 1992) und verteiltem Üben im Besonderen (Benjamin & Tullis, 2010) abgeleitet werden. In dieser Dissertation soll untersucht werden, (1) ob verteiltes Lernen Behalten fördert, (2) ob die Ausprägung des domänenspezifischen Vorwissens die Effekte des verteilten Lernens moderiert, (3) ob verteiltes Lernen die meta-kognitive Beurteilung des Lernprozesses des Lernenden beeinflusst und (4) ob verteiltes Üben für 7. Klässler*innen beim Lernen mit einzelnen Texten vorteilhaft ist. Im ersten Experiment lasen 7. Klässler*innen zwei komplementäre Texte entweder massiert oder verteilt mit einem Abstand (lag) von einer Woche. Die Behaltensleistung wurde unmittelbar nach dem Lesen des zweiten Textes und eine Woche später erfasst. Die Beurteilung des Lernprozesses wurde direkt nach dem Lesen eines Textes erhoben. Experiment 2 replizierte das Paradigma von Experiment 1, wobei der Abstand zwischen den Texten in der verteilten Bedingung auf 15 Min reduziert wurde. In beiden Experimenten wurde eine Interaktion zwischen der Lernbedingung (massiert vs. verteilt) und dem Behaltensintervall (unmittelbar vs. später) gefunden. In der verteilten Bedingung zeigten die Teilnehmenden keine Verringerung in der Leistung zwischen den beiden Tests, die Teilnehmenden in der massierten Bedingung jedoch schon. Trotzdem wurden keine Vorteile des verteilten Lernens beim späteren Test gefunden. Stattdessen zeigten sich unmittelbar nach dem Lernen Nachteile des verteilten Lernens. In Experiment 1 nahmen die Teilnehmenden der verteilten Bedingung das Lernen als weniger schwierig wahr, erwarteten jedoch geringeren Lernerfolg als Teilnehmende der massierten Bedingung. Experiment 3 replizierte das Paradigma von Experiment 1 mit Studierenden in einem Laborsetting. In dem präregistrierten Experiment 4 wurde ein Behaltensintervall von zwei Wochen ergänzt. In beiden Experimenten fand sich eine ähnliche Interaktion zwischen Lernbedingung und Behaltensintervall. In Experiment 3 zeigten die Teilnehmenden in der verteilten Bedingung erneut keine Verringerung in der Leistung zwischen den zwei Tests, in der massierten Bedingung jedoch schon. Es fanden sich jedoch keine Vorteile des verteilten Lernens, auch nicht nach dem längeren Behaltensintervall in Experiment 4. Domänenspezifisches Vorwissen stand in beiden Experimenten in einem positiven Zusammenhang mit der Behaltensleistung. In Experiment 4 zeigten die Teilnehmenden mit geringem Vorwissen geringere Behaltensleistungen, wenn sie verteilt lernten, während keine derartigen Unterschiede für Teilnehmende mit mittlerem oder hohem Vorwissen gefunden wurden. Im präregistrierten Experiment 5 lasen 7. Klässler*innen einen einzelnen Text zweimal. Das zweite Lesen erfolgte hier entweder unmittelbar (massiert) oder nach einer Woche (verteilt). Unmittelbar nach dem zweiten Lesen wurden die Beurteilung des Lernprozesses erhoben. Die Behaltensleistung wurde 4 Minuten oder eine Woche nach dem zweiten Lesen erfasst. Teilnehmende in der verteilten Bedingung erwarteten geringeren Lernerfolg als Teilnehmende in der massierten Bedingung. Es wurde ein Interaktionseffekt zwischen der Lernbedingung und dem Behaltensintervall gefunden, aber kein Vorteil für die verteilte Bedingung. In der verteilten Bedingung zeigten Teilnehmende mit geringem Vorwissen geringere Leistung bei Fragen im Kurzantwortformat als vergleichbare Teilnehmende in der massierten Bedingung. Zusammenfassend wirken diese Ergebnisse wenig vielversprechend bezüglich der Wirksamkeit des verteilten Lernens und Übens mit einzelnen und multiplen Texten. Trotzdem sind die hier berichteten Experimente als ein erster Schritt zur Untersuchung des Verteilungseffektes beim Lernen mit Texten in realistischen Lernszenarien zu betrachten. KW - Textverstehen KW - Distributed Learning KW - Distributed Practice KW - Spacing Effect KW - Distributed Reading KW - Text Comprehension Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-296859 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Eidel, M. A1 - Kübler, A. T1 - Identifying potential training factors in a vibrotactile P300-BCI JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Brain–computer interfaces (BCI) often rely on visual stimulation and feedback. Potential end-users with impaired vision, however, cannot use these BCIs efficiently and require a non-visual alternative. Both auditory and tactile paradigms have been developed but are often not sufficiently fast or accurate. Thus, it is particularly relevant to investigate if and how users can train and improve performance. We report data from 29 healthy participants who trained with a 4-choice tactile P300-BCI during five sessions. To identify potential training factors, we pre-post assessed the robustness of the BCI performance against increased workload in a dual task condition and determined the participants’ somatosensory sensitivity thresholds with a forced-choice intensity discrimination task. Accuracy (M = 79.2% to 92.0%) and tactually evoked P300 amplitudes increased significantly, confirming successful training. Pre-post somatosensory sensitivity increased, and workload decreased significantly, but results of the dual task condition remained inconclusive. The present study confirmed the previously reported feasibility and trainability of our tactile BCI paradigm within a multi-session design. Importantly, we provide first evidence of improvement in the somatosensory system as a potential mediator for the observed training effects. KW - Brain–computer interfaces (BCI) KW - training KW - non-visual Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301064 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - THES A1 - Liesner, Marvin Paul T1 - I control it, but does it mean it is part of me? How the relationship between body movements and controlled object movements influences the sense of agency and the sense of ownership T1 - Ich kontrolliere es, aber ist es deshalb ein Teil von mir? Wie die Umsetzung von Körperbewegungen in Bewegungen von kontrollierten Objekten Sense of agency und Sense of ownership beeinflusst N2 - The “active self” approach suggests that any object we manipulate voluntarily and foreseeably becomes part of our “self” in the sense that we feel control over this object (sense of agency) and experience it as belonging to our own body (sense of ownership). While there is considerable evidence that we can indeed experience both a sense of agency and a sense of ownership over a broad variety of objects when we control these through our actions, the approach has also been criticized for exaggerating the flexibility of the human self. In this thesis, I investigate the influence that the relationship between the body movements controlling an object and the movements of the object itself has on the process of integrating an object into the self. I demonstrate that fully controlling an object is not sufficient for it to be integrated into the self since both explicit and implicit measures of the sense of agency and the sense of ownership indicate less or no integration when body movements are transformed into inverted object movements. Furthermore, I show that such inversions lead to the downregulation of sensory signals either from the body or from the controlled object in order to deal with the conflicting multisensory information when performing such actions. I argue that this downregulation is the underlying factor behind the diminished or eliminated integration of inverted body and object movements and I discuss further pathways for possible future studies building up on these findings. N2 - Der “Active Self”-Ansatz sagt aus, dass jedes Objekt, welches wir willentlich und vorhersehbar manipulieren, Teil unseres „Selbst“ wird in dem Sinne, dass wir Kontrolle über dieses Objekt empfinden (Sense of agency) und es als zu unserem eigenen Körper zugehörig erleben (Sense of ownership). Während es eine beträchtliche Menge an Evidenz dafür gibt, dass wir tatsächlich sowohl Sense of agency als auch Sense of ownership für eine breite Vielfalt an Objekten empfinden können, wenn wir diese durch unsere Handlungen kontrollieren, wurde der Ansatz auch dafür kritisiert die Flexibilität des menschlichen Selbst über zu strapazieren. In dieser Arbeit untersuche ich den Einfluss, den die Beziehung zwischen den Körperbewegungen, welche ein Objekt kontrollieren, und den Bewegungen des Objekts selbst auf den Integrationsprozess eines Objekts in das Selbst hat. Ich demonstriere, dass ein Objekt vollständig zu kontrollieren nicht ausreichend ist, damit es in das Selbst integriert wird, da sowohl explizite als auch implizite Maße für Sense of agency und Sense of ownership weniger oder keine Integration zeigen, wenn Körperbewegungen in invertierte Objektbewegungen transformiert werden. Darüber hinaus zeige ich, dass solche Invertierungen zur Herunterregulierung sensorischer Signale entweder vom Körper oder vom kontrollierten Objekt führen, um mit der konfligierenden multisensorischen Information umzugehen, wenn solche Handlungen ausgeführt werden. Ich argumentiere, dass diese Herunterregulierung der zugrundeliegende Faktor ist für die verringerte oder eliminierte Integration invertierter Körper- und Objektbewegungen und ich diskutiere weitere Richtungen für mögliche zukünftige Studien, die auf diesen Befunden aufbauen. KW - Experimentelle Psychologie KW - Kognitive Psychologie KW - Ideomotorik KW - Sense of agency KW - Sense of ownership KW - Ideomotor KW - Active self KW - Multisensory integration KW - Tactile suppression KW - Tactile gating Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-287030 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Pfister, Roland A1 - Foerster, Anna T1 - How to measure post-error slowing: The case of pre-error speeding JF - Behavior Research Methods N2 - Post-error slowing is one of the most widely employed measures to study cognitive and behavioral consequences of error commission. Several methods have been proposed to quantify the post-error slowing effect, and we discuss two main methods: The traditional method of comparing response times in correct post-error trials to response times of correct trials that follow another correct trial, and a more recent proposal of comparing response times in correct post-error trials to the corresponding correct pre-error trials. Based on thorough re-analyses of two datasets, we argue that the latter method provides an inflated estimate by also capturing the (partially) independent effect of pre-error speeding. We propose two solutions for improving the assessment of human error processing, both of which highlight the importance of distinguishing between initial pre-error speeding and later post-error slowing. KW - response-time analysis KW - post-error slowing KW - pre-error speeding KW - performance monitoring Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-273244 SN - 1554-3528 VL - 54 IS - 1 ER - TY - THES A1 - Brych, Mareike Kimberly T1 - How movements and cognition interact: An investigation of spontaneous blinks T1 - Wie Bewegung und Kognition interagieren: Eine Untersuchung spontaner Lidschläge N2 - During natural behavior, cognitive processes constantly coincide with body movements such as head or eye movements or blinks. However, during experimental investigations of cognitive processes, movements are often highly restricted which is rather unnatural. In order to improve our understanding of natural behavior, this thesis investigates the interaction between cognition and movements by focusing on spontaneous blinks, which naturally interact with other body movements. Spontaneous blinks are inevitably connected to vision as they shut out incoming visual information. Both sensory-based and cognitive factors, for example, stimulus occurrence and evaluation, were reported to influence blink behavior. Our first study investigated if such influences are comparable for visual and non-visual input. The chosen experimental design allowed dissociating sensory-driven and cognitive influences, which then could be compared between the visual and auditory domain. Our results show that blinks are more strongly modulated during passive observation of visual input compared to auditory input. This modulation is however enhanced for both input modalities by an increased attentional demand. In addition, the cognitively defined meaning of a stimulus changes blink latency independent of the sensory domain. Overall, our findings show that spontaneous blinks and cognitive processes are linked beyond vision. Moreover, the underlying cognitive processes that influence blinks are largely the same across different sensory input indicating that blinks are profoundly integrated into our system. When investigating natural behavior, it is important to consider that movements rarely occur in isolation, but are executed side by side. As these movements interact and have a link to cognitive processes, the complexity of our system increases. In order to take this complexity into account, the second part of the experimental research focused on movement interactions, more specifically on the interactions between blinks, pupil size and speaking. Our results reveal that speech-related motor activity increases blink rate and pupil size as well as modulates blink timing. This is in line with previous research that described a relation between different body and eye movements. Importantly, each bodily-induced change in eye movements affects visual information intake. Therefore, different movements can be tightly linked to perceptual processes through complex interactions. Altogether, the work of this thesis provides rich evidence that movements and cognitive processes are deeply intertwined. Therefore, movements should be seen as an integral part of our system. Taking the relevance of movements and their interactions into account during experimental investigations is necessary in order to reveal a more realistic and complete picture of human natural behavior. N2 - Während unseres natürlichen Verhaltens werden kognitive Prozesse und Körperbewegungen wie Kopf- oder Augenbewegungen oder Lidschläge parallel ausgeführt. Allerdings werden Bewegungen in experimentellen Untersuchungen zu kognitiven Prozessen meist stark eingeschränkt, was unnatürlich ist. Um natürliches Verhalten besser zu verstehen, wird in dieser Dissertation die Interaktion zwischen Kognition und Bewegung untersucht. Der Fokus liegt auf spontanen Lidschlägen, die auch mit anderen Körperbewegungen auf natürliche Weise interagieren. Das Blinzeln ist unweigerlich mit dem Sehen verbunden, da bei jedem Lidschluss die Informationsaufnahme unterbrochen wird. Frühere Forschungsergebnisse zeigten, dass sowohl sensorische als auch kognitive Faktoren, wie beispielsweise Reizpräsentation und -evaluation, das Blinzeln beeinflussen können. Die erste Studie dieser Dissertation untersuchte, ob dieselben Einflüsse auf das Blinzeln wirken, wenn auch nicht-visuelle Informationen präsentiert werden. Das gewählte Versuchsdesign erlaubte rein sensorische von kognitiven Einflüssen auf das Blinzeln zu trennen. Diese Einflüsse konnten wiederum zwischen visuellem und auditivem Input verglichen werden. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Blinzeln stärker bei visuellem als bei auditivem Input angepasst wird, wenn dieser nur passiv verfolgt wird. Sobald allerdings Aufmerksamkeit auf den Input gerichtet wird, wird diese Anpassung an den sensorischen Input in beiden Modalitäten auf ähnliche Weise verstärkt. Zusätzlich wird der Zeitpunkt des Blinzelns durch die kognitive Bewertung der Reize verzögert - unabhängig davon, ob ein Reiz visuell oder auditiv präsentiert wird. Insgesamt legen unsere Experimente dar, dass das spontane Blinzeln und kognitive Prozesse über das Sehen hinaus miteinander verknüpft sind. Die zu Grunde liegenden kognitiven Prozesse, die das Blinzeln beeinflussen, sind sogar weitgehend dieselben bei unterschiedlichem sensorischen Input. Das Blinzeln scheint demnach tiefgreifend in unser System integriert zu sein. Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt natürlichen Verhaltens ist die gleichzeitige Ausübung mehrerer Bewegungen. Da diese Bewegungen miteinander interagieren und eine Verbindung zu kognitiven Prozessen besteht, erhöht sich die Komplexität unseres Systems. Im zweiten Teil der experimentellen Untersuchungen wurden daher Bewegungsinteraktionen in den Vordergrund gestellt. Die präsentierten Studien haben insbesondere den Einfluss verschiedener Bewegungsaspekte des Sprechens auf unser spontanes Blinzeln bzw. auf die Pupillengröße untersucht. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sprechbezogene Bewegungen sowohl die Anzahl der Lidschlüsse als auch die Pupillengröße erhöhen, sowie den Zeitpunkt der Lidschlüsse beeinflussen. Auch andere Forscher fanden solche Zusammenhänge zwischen verschiedenen Körper- und Augenbewegungen. Da jede vom Körper verursachte Veränderung der Augenbewegung zudem unsere visuelle Reizaufnahme verändert, kann man schlussfolgern, dass verschiedene Bewegungen und deren komplexe Interaktionen eng mit unserer Wahrnehmung verbunden sind. Alles in allem liefert diese Arbeit weitreichende Beweise, wie stark Bewegungen und kognitive Prozesse miteinander verwoben sind. Daher sollten Bewegungen als wesentlicher Teil unseres Systems angesehen werden. Wir müssen daher die Bedeutung von Bewegungen und deren Interaktionen in experimentelle Forschung einbeziehen, um ein realistischeres und kompletteres Bild unseres natürlichen Verhaltens zu enthüllen. KW - Kognition KW - Lidschlag KW - Augenbewegung KW - spontaneous blinks KW - movement interaction KW - Wahrnehmung KW - Aufmerksamkeit Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-267376 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Ju, Qianqian A1 - Gan, Yiqun A1 - Rinn, Robin A1 - Duan, Yanping A1 - Lippke, Sonia T1 - Health Status Stability of Patients in a Medical Rehabilitation Program: What Are the Roles of Time, Physical Fitness Level, and Self-efficacy? JF - International Journal of Behavioral Medicine N2 - Background Individuals’ physical and mental health, as well as their chances of returning to work after their ability to work is damaged, can be addressed by medical rehabilitation. Aim This study investigated the developmental trends of mental and physical health among patients in medical rehabilitation and the roles of self-efficacy and physical fitness in the development of mental and physical health. Design A longitudinal design that included four time-point measurements across 15 months. Setting A medical rehabilitation center in Germany. Population Participants included 201 patients who were recruited from a medical rehabilitation center. Methods To objectively measure physical fitness (lung functioning), oxygen reabsorption at anaerobic threshold (VO2AT) was used, along with several self-report scales. Results We found a nonlinear change in mental health among medical rehabilitation patients. The results underscored the importance of medical rehabilitation for patients’ mental health over time. In addition, patients’ physical health was stable over time. The initial level of physical fitness (VO2AT) positively predicted their mental health and kept the trend more stable. Self-efficacy appeared to have a positive relationship with mental health after rehabilitation treatment. Conclusions This study revealed a nonlinear change in mental health among medical rehabilitation patients. Self-efficacy was positively related to mental health, and the initial level of physical fitness positively predicted the level of mental health after rehabilitation treatment. Clinical Rehabilitation More attention could be given to physical capacity and self-efficacy for improving and maintaining rehabilitants’ mental health. KW - latent growth curve model KW - mental health KW - physical fitness KW - self-efficacy KW - physical health Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-308445 SN - 1070-5503 SN - 1532-7558 VL - 29 IS - 5 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Breil, Christina A1 - Huestegge, Lynn A1 - Böckler, Anne T1 - From eye to arrow: Attention capture by direct gaze requires more than just the eyes JF - Attention, Perception & Psychophysics N2 - Human attention is strongly attracted by direct gaze and sudden onset motion. The sudden direct-gaze effect refers to the processing advantage for targets appearing on peripheral faces that suddenly establish eye contact. Here, we investigate the necessity of social information for attention capture by (sudden onset) ostensive cues. Six experiments involving 204 participants applied (1) naturalistic faces, (2) arrows, (3) schematic eyes, (4) naturalistic eyes, or schematic facial configurations (5) without or (6) with head turn to an attention-capture paradigm. Trials started with two stimuli oriented towards the observer and two stimuli pointing into the periphery. Simultaneous to target presentation, one direct stimulus changed to averted and one averted stimulus changed to direct, yielding a 2 × 2 factorial design with direction and motion cues being absent or present. We replicated the (sudden) direct-gaze effect for photographic faces, but found no corresponding effects in Experiments 2-6. Hence, a holistic and socially meaningful facial context seems vital for attention capture by direct gaze. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The present study highlights the significance of context information for social attention. Our findings demonstrate that the direct-gaze effect, that is, the prioritization of direct gaze over averted gaze, critically relies on the presentation of a meaningful holistic and naturalistic facial context. This pattern of results is evidence in favor of early effects of surrounding social information on attention capture by direct gaze. KW - social interaction KW - social cognition KW - attention capture KW - direct gaze KW - social cues KW - face perception Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-273206 SN - 1943-393X VL - 84 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Grapp, Miriam A1 - Ell, Johanna A1 - Kiermeier, Senta A1 - Haun, Markus W. A1 - Kübler, Andrea A1 - Friederich, Hans-Christoph A1 - Maatouk, Imad T1 - Feasibility study of a self-guided internet-based intervention for family caregivers of patients with cancer (OAse) JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Despite high levels of distress, family caregivers of patients with cancer rarely seek psychosocial support and Internet-based interventions (IBIs) are a promising approach to reduce some access barriers. Therefore, we developed a self-guided IBI for family caregivers of patients with cancer (OAse), which, in addition to patients' spouses, also addresses other family members (e.g., adult children, parents). This study aimed to determine the feasibility of OAse (recruitment, dropout, adherence, participant satisfaction). Secondary outcomes were caregivers’ self-efficacy, emotional state, and supportive care needs. N = 41 family caregivers participated in the study (female: 65%), mostly spouses (71%), followed by children (20%), parents (7%), and friends (2%). Recruitment (47%), retention (68%), and adherence rates (76% completed at least 4 of 6 lessons) support the feasibility of OAse. Overall, the results showed a high degree of overall participant satisfaction (96%). There were no significant pre-post differences in secondary outcome criteria, but a trend toward improvement in managing difficult interactions/emotions (p = .06) and depression/anxiety (p = .06). Although the efficacy of the intervention remains to be investigated, our results suggest that OAse can be well implemented in caregivers’ daily lives and has the potential to improve family caregivers’ coping strategies. KW - cancer KW - oncology KW - psychology Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-300537 VL - 12 ER - TY - THES A1 - Klinke, Christopher Matthias T1 - Experimental investigation of the effect of distal stress induction on threat conditioning in humans T1 - Experimentelle Untersuchung des Effektes von distaler Stressinduktion auf Threat-Konditionierung beim Menschen N2 - Stress constitutes a major risk factor for the development of psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD and anxiety disorders, by shifting the brain into a state of sensitization and makes it more vulnerable when being exposed to further aversive events. This was experimentally in-vestigated in rodents by examining the effect of a distal stress induction on threat conditioning, where stress impaired extinction learning and caused spontaneous recovery. However, this effect has never been experimentally investigated in humans, so far. Thus, the aim of this dissertation was to investigate the effect of distal stress on threat conditioning in humans. Therefore, two subsequent studies were conducted. For both studies, the threat conditioning paradigm comprised threat acquisition, extinction learning, and re-extinction. In the threat acquisition phase, two geometrical shapes were used as conditioned stimulus (CS), from which one (CS+) was paired with a painful electric stimulus (unconditioned stimulus, US), but not the other one (CS-). During extinction learning 24 h later and re-extinction seventeen days later, CSs were again presented but without any US delivery. In Study 1, 69 participants underwent either a stress (socially evaluated cold pressor test; SECPT) or sham protocol 10 days prior to threat conditioning. Furthermore, context effects were examined by placing the stress protocol in the same context (context-A stress, and sham group) or a different context (context-B stress group) than conditioning. Results revealed that the context-A, but not context-B, stress group displayed impaired safety learning (i.e. potenti-ation towards CS-) for startle response during threat acquisition. Moreover, the same stress group showed impaired threat extinction, evident in sustained CS discrimination in valence and arousal ratings during extinction learning, and memory recall. In sum, distal stress on the one hand impaired safety learning during threat conditioning on a level of startle response. On the other hand, stress impaired threat extinction on a level of ratings. Noteworthy, the effect of distal stress was only found when the stressor was placed in the same context as later threat learning. Hence, suggesting that the combination of stressor and stressor-associated context exerted the effect on threat extinction. In Study 2, it was examined if distal stress induction could also have an impact on threat and extinction processes without the necessity of context association. Therefore, the same stress (n = 45) or sham protocol (n = 44) as in Study 1 was conducted in a different context than and 24 h prior to a threat conditioning paradigm. Similar to Study 1, weakened extinction learning was found in fear ratings for the stress (vs. sham) group, which was indicated by persistent CS+/CS- differentiation after the first block of extinction trials. Alterations in safety learning towards the CS- during threat acquisition were only supported by significant correlations between stress measures on the stress day and conditioned startle response of the CS- during acquisition. Taken together, in two subsequent studies this dissertation provided first evidence of impaired threat extinction after distal stress induction in humans. Furthermore, impairments in safety learning, as can be observed in PTSD, were additionally demonstrated. Interestingly, the effects were boosted and more profound when associating the stressor to the later learning context. These results have clinical implications as they can be translated to the notion that prior stress exposure makes an individual more vulnerable for later aversive events. N2 - Stress stellt einen Hauptrisikofaktor für die Entstehung einer psychiatrischen Erkrankung, insbesondere PTSD und Angststörungen, dar. Dieser Prozess wird vermittelt über einen Wechsel des Gehirns in einen Zustand der Sensibilisierung, welcher das Individuum vulnerabler bei der Exposition eines weiteren aversiven Ereignisses macht. Experimentell ließ sich dies in Tierstudien durch Untersuchungen des Effektes von distalem Stress auf Threat-Konditionierung nachweisen. Die Ergebnisse der Studien weisen auf ein verschlechtertes Extinktionslernen und dessen Abruf aufgrund der Stressinduktion hin. Experimentelle Untersuchungen dieses Effektes beim Menschen fehlen jedoch bislang. Daher hat sich diese Dissertation das Ziel gesetzt, eben diesen Effekt von distalem Stress auf Threat-Konditionierung im Menschen zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden zwei aufeinander aufbauende Studien durchgeführt. In beiden Studien wurden differenzielle Threat-Konditionierungsparadigmen verwendet, welche aus den Phasen der Threat-Akquisition, des Extinktionslernens und der Re-Extinktion bestanden. In der Threat-Akquisitionsphase wurden zwei geometrische Figuren als konditionierte Stimuli (CS) verwendet. Eine dieser Figuren (CS+) wurde mit einem leicht schmerzhaften elektrischen Stromreiz (unkonditionierter Stimulus, US) gekoppelt, wohingegen solch eine Paarung mit der anderen Figur (CS-) ausblieb. Während des Extinktionslernens und der Re-Extinktion, welche jeweils 24 h und 17 Tage nach der Akquisition stattfanden, wurden beide CSs ohne US-Paarung wiederholt präsentiert. In der ersten Studie durchliefen 69 Probanden entweder ein Stress- (Sozial-evaluativer Cold Pressor Test, SECPT) oder ein Sham-Kontrollprotokoll, welches zehn Tage vor dem Threat-Konditionierungsparadigma stattfand. Darüber hinaus wurden Kontexteffekte untersucht. Dieses wurde durch die Platzierung des Stressprotokolls, entweder im gleichen (Kontext-A Stress & Shamgruppe) oder in einem anderen Kontext (Kontext-B Stressgruppe) als das Lernparadigma, realisiert. Die Ergebnisse demonstrieren für die Kontext-A Stressgruppe im Gegensatz zur Kontext-B Stressgruppe während der Akquisitionsphase ein verschlechtertes Sicherheitslernen (d.h. eine Potenzierung der konditionierten Reaktionen des CS-) in der Startle-Reaktion. Darüber hinaus demonstrierte dieselbe Stressgruppe verschlechterte Extinktion, was sich in persistierender CS-Diskrimination in Valenz- und Arousalratings während des Extinktionslernens und des Gedächtnisabrufes äußerte. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass distaler Stress einerseits das Sicherheitslernen während der Akquisitionsphase auf der Ebene der Startle-Reaktion verschlechterte. Andererseits verschlechterte Stress die Extinktion und verstärkte die Furchtrückkehr auf der Ebene der subjektiven Ratings. Allerdings ist wichtig zu erwähnen, dass diese Effekte des distalen Stresses nur gefunden wurden, wenn der Stressor im gleichen Kontext wie das Konditionierungsparadigma appliziert wurde. Dieses lässt vermuten, dass die Kombination aus Stressor und stressor-assoziiertem Kontext den verschlechternden Effekt auf die Extinktion ausübten. In der zweiten Studie wurde darauf aufbauend untersucht, ob distale Stressinduktion einen Einfluss auf Threat- und Extinktionsprozesse, auch ohne die Notwendigkeit der Kontextassoziation, haben kann. Hierfür wurden das gleiche Stress- (n = 45) und Sham-Kontrollprotokoll (n = 44) wie in Studie 1 durchlaufen. In diesem Fall jedoch in einem anderen Kontext und 24 h vor dem Konditionierungsparadigma. Vergleichbar mit Studie 1 konnte abgeschwächtes Extinktionslernen für die Stress- im Vergleich zur Shamgruppe festgestellt werden. Es zeigte sich nur für die Stressgruppe eine anhaltende CS+/CS- Differenzierung in den Furchtratings nach dem ersten Block des Extinktionslernens. Unterschiede im Sicherheitslernen bezüglich des CS- während der Akquisitionsphase ließen sich nicht finden. Jedoch deuten signifikante Korrelation zwischen Stressmaßen am Stresstag und der konditionierten Startle-Reaktion auf den CS- während der Akquisition auf einen Einfluss von Stress auf das Sicherheitslernen hin. Zusammengefasst liefern die Studien dieser Dissertation erste Evidenzen für verschlechterte Extinktionsprozesse nach distaler Stressinduktion beim Menschen. Darüber hinaus konnten Einbußen im Sicherheitslernen aufgrund des Stressors verzeichnet werden. Hervorzuheben ist, dass der Stresseffekt durch die Assoziation zwischen Stressor und Konditionierungskontext verstärkt wurde. Die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation haben klinische Relevanz, da sie erste experimentelle Evidenzen am Menschen für die Annahme liefern, dass vorherige Stresserfahrungen ein Individuum vulnerabler für späteres aversives Lernen machen. KW - Stress KW - Stress KW - Lernen KW - threat conditioning KW - learning and memory KW - Furcht KW - Assoziatives Lernen Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-225562 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Zyberaj, Jetmir A1 - Seibel, Sebastian A1 - Schowalter, Annika F. A1 - Pötz, Lennart A1 - Richter-Killenberg, Stefanie A1 - Volmer, Judith T1 - Developing sustainable careers during a pandemic: the role of psychological capital and career adaptability JF - Sustainability N2 - The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has not only had negative effects on employees' health, but also on their prospects to gain and maintain employment. Using a longitudinal research design with two measurement points, we investigated the ramifications of various psychological and organizational resources on employees' careers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, in a sample of German employees (N = 305), we investigated the role of psychological capital (PsyCap) for four career-related outcomes: career satisfaction, career engagement, coping with changes in career due to COVID-19, and career-related COVID-19 worries. We also employed leader–member exchange (LMX) as a moderator and career adaptability as a mediating variable in these relationships. Results from path analyses revealed a positive association between PsyCap and career satisfaction and career coping. Furthermore, PsyCap was indirectly related to career engagement through career adaptability. However, moderation analysis showed no moderating role of LMX on the link between PsyCap and career adaptability. Our study contributes to the systematic research concerning the role of psychological and organizational resources for employees' careers and well-being, especially for crisis contexts. KW - psychological capital KW - career adaptability KW - LMX KW - career engagement KW - career satisfaction KW - career coping KW - COVID-19 Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-267286 SN - 2071-1050 VL - 14 IS - 5 ER - TY - THES A1 - Greving, Sven T1 - Desirable Difficulties in Applied Learning Settings: Mechanisms and Effects T1 - Wünschenswerte Erschwernisse in angewandten Lernumgebungen: Mechanismen und Effekte N2 - Improving retention of learned content by means of a practice test is a learning strategy that has been researched since a century and has been consistently found to be more effective than comparable learning strategies such as restudy (i.e., the testing effect). Most importantly, practicing test questions has been found to outperform restudy even when no additional information about the correct answers was provided to practice test takers, rendering practice tests effective and efficient in fostering retention of learning content. Since 15 years, additional scientific attention is devoted to this memory phenomenon and additional research investigated to what extend practicing test questions is relevant in real-world educational settings. This dissertation first presents the evidence for testing effects in applied educational settings by presenting key publications and presenting findings from a methodological review conducted for this purpose. Within this dissertation, theories are presented why practicing test questions should benefit learning in real-world educational settings even without the provision of additional information and key variables for the effectiveness of practicing test questions are presented. Four studies presented in this dissertation aimed at exploring these assumptions in actual university classrooms while also trying to implement new methods of practicing learning content and thus augment course procedures. Findings from these studies—although not often consistent—will be incorporated and interpreted in the light of the theoretical accounts on the testing effect. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this dissertation is that, given the right circumstances, practicing test questions can elicit beneficial effects on the retention of learning content that are independent of additional information and thus taking a practice test per se, can foster retention of real-world learning content. N2 - Seit einem Jahrhundert wird die positive Wirkung von Abrufübungen auf das Behalten gelernter Inhalte untersucht. Diese Untersuchungen belegen durchgängig, dass Abrufübungen für das Behalten förderlicher sind als vergleichbare Lernaktivitäten wie beispielsweise nochmaliges Lesen (Der Testungseffekt). Der Testungseffekt ist besonders bedeutsam wenn er in Settings untersucht wird in denen keine Informationen über die Richtigkeit des abgelegten Tests an die Lernenden gegeben werden und somit belegen, dass Abrufübungen nicht nur effektive sondern auch effiziente Methoden der Behaltensförderung darstellen. Seit 15 Jahren intensiviert sich das wissenschaftliche Interesse am Testungseffekt und immer mehr Forschung untersucht auch das Ausmaß der Übertragbarkeit auf reale Lernumgebungen. Diese Dissertation stellt zuerst Befunde aus Untersuchungen des Testungseffekts in angewandten Lernsettings dar, wobei zentrale Studien besprochen werden und hier ein eigens zu diesem Zweck angestelltes methodisches Review vorgestellt wird. Innerhalb der Dissertationen werden Theorien erläutert, warum Abrufübungen in realen Lernsettings das Behalten auch ohne zusätzliche Darbietung der korrekten Antwort fördern sollten und welche Variablen dafür essentiell sind. In dieser Dissertation warden zudem vier Studien präsentiert, die diese Variablen in universitären Lernumgebungen untersuchten, teilweise mit dem Ziel, Abrufübungen noch effektiver zu machen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse aus diesen vier Studien—obwohl sie nicht immer konsistent sind—werden abschließend diskutiert und in Bezug zu den vorgestellten Theorien gesetzt. Eine zetrale Schlussfolgerung aus den vorgestellten Studien ist die Erkenntnis, dass unter den richtigen Bedingungen Abrufübungen den Testungseffekt hervorrufen können, die unabhängig von zusätlicher Information sind und dass es demnach die Abrufübung per se ist, die zum Behalten gelernter Information beiträgt. KW - Unterrichtspsychologie KW - Testing Effect KW - Feedback KW - University Teaching Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-288848 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Boschet, Juliane M. A1 - Scherbaum, Stefan A1 - Pittig, Andre T1 - Costly avoidance of Pavlovian fear stimuli and the temporal dynamics of its decision process JF - Scientific Reports N2 - Conflicts between avoiding feared stimuli versus approaching them for competing rewards are essential for functional behavior and anxious psychopathology. Yet, little is known about the underlying decision process. We examined approach-avoidance decisions and their temporal dynamics when avoiding Pavlovian fear stimuli conflicted with gaining rewards. First, a formerly neutral stimulus (CS+) was repeatedly paired with an aversive stimulus (US) to establish Pavlovian fear. Another stimulus (CS−) was never paired with the US. A control group received neutral tones instead of aversive USs. Next, in each of 324 trials, participants chose between a CS−/low reward and a CS+/high reward option. For the latter, probability of CS+ presentation (Pavlovian fear information) and reward magnitude (reward information) varied. Computer mouse movements were tracked to capture the decision dynamics. Although no more USs occurred, pronounced and persistent costly avoidance of the Pavlovian fear CS+ was found. Time-continuous multiple regression of movement trajectories revealed a stronger and faster impact of Pavlovian fear compared to reward information during decision-making. The impact of fear information, but not reward information, modestly decreased across trials. These findings suggest a persistently stronger weighting of fear compared to reward information during approach-avoidance decisions, which may facilitate the development of pathological avoidance. KW - decision process KW - fear stimuli KW - approach-avoidance decisions Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301041 VL - 12 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Gründahl, Marthe A1 - Weiß, Martin A1 - Maier, Lisa A1 - Hewig, Johannes A1 - Deckert, Jürgen A1 - Hein, Grit T1 - Construction and validation of a scale to measure loneliness and isolation during social distancing and its effect on mental health JF - Frontiers in Psychiatry N2 - A variety of factors contribute to the degree to which a person feels lonely and socially isolated. These factors may be particularly relevant in contexts requiring social distancing, e.g., during the COVID-19 pandemic or in states of immunodeficiency. We present the Loneliness and Isolation during Social Distancing (LISD) Scale. Extending existing measures, the LISD scale measures both state and trait aspects of loneliness and isolation, including indicators of social connectedness and support. In addition, it reliably predicts individual differences in anxiety and depression. Data were collected online from two independent samples in a social distancing context (the COVID-19 pandemic). Factorial validation was based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Sample 1, N = 244) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Sample 2, N = 304). Multiple regression analyses were used to assess how the LISD scale predicts state anxiety and depression. The LISD scale showed satisfactory fit in both samples. Its two state factors indicate being lonely and isolated as well as connected and supported, while its three trait factors reflect general loneliness and isolation, sociability and sense of belonging, and social closeness and support. Our results imply strong predictive power of the LISD scale for state anxiety and depression, explaining 33 and 51% of variance, respectively. Anxiety and depression scores were particularly predicted by low dispositional sociability and sense of belonging and by currently being more lonely and isolated. In turn, being lonely and isolated was related to being less connected and supported (state) as well as having lower social closeness and support in general (trait). We provide a novel scale which distinguishes between acute and general dimensions of loneliness and social isolation while also predicting mental health. The LISD scale could be a valuable and economic addition to the assessment of mental health factors impacted by social distancing. KW - loneliness KW - social isolation KW - social distancing KW - depression KW - anxiety Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-269446 SN - 1664-0640 VL - 13 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Ghafoor, Hina A1 - Nordbeck, Peter A1 - Ritter, Oliver A1 - Pauli, Paul A1 - Schulz, Stefan M. T1 - Can Religiosity and Social Support Explain Effects of Trait Emotional Intelligence on Health-Related Quality of Life: A Cross-Cultural Study JF - Journal of Religion and Health N2 - Religion and social support along with trait emotional intelligence (EI) help individuals to reduce stress caused by difficult situations. Their implications may vary across cultures in reference to predicting health-related quality of life (HRQoL). A convenience sample of N = 200 chronic heart failure (CHF) patients was recruited at cardiology centers in Germany (n = 100) and Pakistan (n = 100). Results indicated that trait-EI predicted better mental component of HRQoL in Pakistani and German CHF patients. Friends as social support appeared relevant for German patients only. Qualitative data indicate an internal locus of control in German as compared to Pakistani patients. Strengthening the beneficial role of social support in Pakistani patients is one example of how the current findings may inspire culture-specific treatment to empower patients dealing with the detrimental effects of CHF. KW - cross-cultural comparison KW - chronic heart failure KW - religion KW - social support KW - trait emotional intelligence KW - health-related quality of life Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-232823 SN - 0022-4197 VL - 61 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Weiß, Martin A1 - Rodrigues, Johannes A1 - Hewig, Johannes T1 - Big Five personality factors in relation to coping with contact restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic: a small sample study JF - Social Sciences N2 - To slow down the spread of the SARS-Cov-2 virus, countries worldwide severely restricted public and social life. In addition to the physical threat posed by the viral disease (COVID-19), the pandemic also has implications for psychological well-being. Using a small sample (N = 51), we examined how Big Five personality traits relate to coping with contact restrictions during three consecutive weeks in the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. We showed that extraversion was associated with suffering from severe contact restrictions and with benefiting from their relaxation. Individuals with high neuroticism did not show a change in their relatively poor coping with the restrictions over time, whereas conscientious individuals seemed to experience no discomfort and even positive feelings during the period of contact restrictions. Our results support the assumption that neuroticism is a vulnerability factor in relation to psychological wellbeing but also show an influence of contact restrictions on extraverted individuals. KW - Big Five KW - coping KW - COVID-19 KW - positive affect KW - negative affect Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-290556 SN - 2076-0760 VL - 11 IS - 10 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Reis, Moritz A1 - Pfister, Roland T1 - Being Observed Does Not Boost Rule Retrieval JF - Advances in Cognitive Psychology N2 - Previous research, mainly focusing on the situational preconditions of rule violations, indicates that feelings of being watched by other agents promote rule compliance. However, the cognitive underpinnings of this effect and of rule violations in general have only attracted little scientific attention yet. In this study, we investigated whether cues of being observed not only reduce the likelihood of violating rules but also affect the underlying cognitive processes of such behavior when still putting a rule violation into action. Therefore, we applied a motion-tracking paradigm in which participants could violate a simple stimulus-response mapping rule while being faced with pictures of either open or closed eyes. In line with prior research, temporal and spatial measures of the participants' movements indicated that violating this rule induced substantial cognitive conflict. However, conflict during rulebreaking was not moderated by the eye stimuli. This outcome suggests that rule retrieval constitutes an automatic process which is not or is only barely influenced by situational parameters. Moreover, our results imply that the effect of perceived observation on rule conformity is driven by normative influences on decision-making instead of social facilitation of dominant action tendencies. KW - rule retrieval KW - motion tracking KW - cognitive conflict KW - observation Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301089 VL - 18 IS - 3 SP - 173 EP - 178 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hoffmann, Mareike A. A1 - Koch, Iring A1 - Huestegge, Lynn T1 - Are some effector systems harder to switch to? In search of cost asymmetries when switching between manual, vocal, and oculomotor tasks JF - Memory & Cognition N2 - In task-switching studies, performance is typically worse in task-switch trials than in task-repetition trials. These switch costs are often asymmetrical, a phenomenon that has been explained by referring to a dominance of one task over the other. Previous studies also indicated that response modalities associated with two tasks may be considered as integral components for defining a task set. However, a systematic assessment of the role of response modalities in task switching is still lacking: Are some response modalities harder to switch to than others? The present study systematically examined switch costs when combining tasks that differ only with respect to their associated effector systems. In Experiment 1, 16 participants switched (in unpredictable sequence) between oculomotor and vocal tasks. In Experiment 2, 72 participants switched (in pairwise combinations) between oculomotor, vocal, and manual tasks. We observed systematic performance costs when switching between response modalities under otherwise constant task features and could thereby replicate previous observations of response modality switch costs. However, we did not observe any substantial switch-cost asymmetries. As previous studies using temporally overlapping dual-task paradigms found substantial prioritization effects (in terms of asymmetric costs) especially for oculomotor tasks, the present results suggest different underlying processes in sequential task switching than in simultaneous multitasking. While more research is needed to further substantiate a lack of response modality switch-cost asymmetries in a broader range of task switching situations, we suggest that task-set representations related to specific response modalities may exhibit rapid decay. KW - cognitive control KW - task switching KW - response modalities Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-324887 VL - 50 IS - 7 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kiser, Dominik P. A1 - Gromer, Daniel A1 - Pauli, Paul A1 - Hilger, Kirsten T1 - A virtual reality social conditioned place preference paradigm for humans: Does trait social anxiety affect approach and avoidance of virtual agents? JF - Frontiers in Virtual Reality N2 - Approach and avoidance of positive and negative social cues are fundamental to prevent isolation and ensure survival. High trait social anxiety is characterized by an avoidance of social situations and extensive avoidance is a risk factor for the development of social anxiety disorder (SAD). Therefore, experimental methods to assess social avoidance behavior in humans are essential. The social conditioned place preference (SCPP) paradigm is a well-established experimental paradigm in animal research that is used to objectively investigate social approach–avoidance mechanisms. We retranslated this paradigm for human research using virtual reality. To this end, 58 healthy adults were exposed to either a happy- or angry-looking virtual agent in a specific room, and the effects of this encounter on dwell time as well as evaluation of this room in a later test without an agent were examined. We did not observe a general SCPP effect on dwell time or ratings but discovered a moderation by trait social anxiety, in which participants with higher trait social anxiety spent less time in the room in which the angry agent was present before, suggesting that higher levels of trait social anxiety foster conditioned social avoidance. However, further studies are needed to verify this observation and substantiate an association with social anxiety disorder. We discussed the strengths, limitations, and technical implications of our paradigm for future investigations to more comprehensively understand the mechanisms involved in social anxiety and facilitate the development of new personalized treatment approaches by using virtual reality. KW - retranslational research KW - conditioned place preference KW - approach–avoidance KW - social anxiety KW - virtual reality KW - personality traits KW - individual differences Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-293564 SN - 2673-4192 VL - 3 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wong, Alex H. K. A1 - Pittig, Andre T1 - A dimensional measure of safety behavior: A non-dichotomous assessment of costly avoidance in human fear conditioning JF - Psychological Research N2 - Safety behavior prevents the occurrence of threat, thus it is typically considered adaptive. However, safety behavior in anxiety-related disorders is often costly, and persists even the situation does not entail realistic threat. Individuals can engage in safety behavior to varying extents, however, these behaviors are typically measured dichotomously (i.e., to execute or not). To better understand the nuances of safety behavior, this study developed a dimensional measure of safety behavior that had a negative linear relationship with the admission of an aversive outcome. In two experiments, a Reward group receiving fixed or individually calibrated incentives competing with safety behavior showed reduced safety behavior than a Control group receiving no incentives. This allowed extinction learning to a previously learnt warning signal in the Reward group (i.e., updating the belief that this stimulus no longer signals threat). Despite the Reward group exhibited extinction learning, both groups showed a similar increase in fear to the warning signal once safety behavior was no longer available. This null group difference was due to some participants in the Reward group not incentivized enough to disengage from safety behavior. Dimensional assessment revealed a dissociation between low fear but substantial safety behavior to a safety signal in the Control group. This suggests that low-cost safety behavior does not accurately reflect the fear-driven processes, but also other non-fear-driven processes, such as cost (i.e., engage in safety behavior merely because it bears little to no cost). Pinpointing both processes is important for furthering the understanding of safety behavior. KW - safety behavior KW - anxiety KW - threat Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-267688 SN - 1430-2772 VL - 86 IS - 1 ER -