TY - JOUR A1 - Kohl, Patrick Laurenz A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin T1 - The neglected bee trees: European beech forests as a home for feral honey bee colonies JF - PeerJ N2 - It is a common belief that feral honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera L.) were eradicated in Europe through the loss of habitats, domestication by man and spread of pathogens and parasites. Interestingly, no scientific data are available, neither about the past nor the present status of naturally nesting honeybee colonies. We expected near-natural beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests to provide enough suitable nest sites to be a home for feral honey bee colonies in Europe. Here, we made a first assessment of their occurrence and density in two German woodland areas based on two methods, the tracing of nest sites based on forager flight routes (beelining technique), and the direct inspection of potential cavity trees. Further, we established experimental swarms at forest edges and decoded dances for nest sites performed by scout bees in order to study how far swarms from beekeeper-managed hives would potentially move into a forest. We found that feral honey bee colonies regularly inhabit tree cavities in near-natural beech forests at densities of at least 0.11-0.14 colonies/km\(^{2}\). Colonies were not confined to the forest edges; they were also living deep inside the forests. We estimated a median distance of 2,600 m from the bee trees to the next apiaries, while scout bees in experimental swarms communicated nest sites in close distances (median: 470 m). We extrapolate that there are several thousand feral honey bee colonies in German woodlands. These have to be taken in account when assessing the role of forest areas in providing pollination services to the surrounding land, and their occurrence has implications for the species' perception among researchers, beekeepers and conservationists. This study provides a starting point for investigating the life-histories and the ecological interactions of honey bees in temperate European forest environments. KW - Apis mellifera KW - beech forests KW - black woodpecker KW - dispersal KW - Fagus sylvatica KW - feral honey bees KW - hollow tree KW - swarming KW - tree cavity KW - wild honey bees Y1 - 2018 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-176512 VL - 6 IS - e4602 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Requier, Fabrice A1 - Paillet, Yoan A1 - Laroche, Fabienne A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin A1 - Zhang, Jie A1 - Lombardi, Fabio A1 - Svoboda, Miroslav A1 - Steffan-Dewenter, Ingolf T1 - Contribution of European forests to safeguard wild honeybee populations JF - Conservation Letters N2 - Abstract Recent studies reveal the use of tree cavities by wild honeybee colonies in European forests. This highlights the conservation potential of forests for a highly threatened component of the native entomofauna in Europe, but currently no estimate of potential wild honeybee population sizes exists. Here, we analyzed the tree cavity densities of 106 forest areas across Europe and inferred an expected population size of wild honeybees. Both forest and management types affected the density of tree cavities. Accordingly, we estimated that more than 80,000 wild honeybee colonies could be sustained in European forests. As expected, potential conservation hotspots were identified in unmanaged forests, and, surprisingly, also in other large forest areas across Europe. Our results contribute to the EU policy strategy to halt pollinator declines and reveal the potential of forest areas for the conservation of so far neglected wild honeybee populations in Europe. KW - Apis mellifera KW - Conservation KW - forest management KW - honeybees KW - native populations KW - protected forests KW - tree cavities KW - unmanaged broadleaved forests Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-204407 VL - 13 IS - 2 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kablau, Arne A1 - Berg, Stefan A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin A1 - Scheiner, Ricarda T1 - Short-term hyperthermia at larval age reduces sucrose responsiveness of adult honeybees and can increase life span JF - Apidologie N2 - Honeybees are very sensitive to their breeding temperature. Even slightly lower temperatures during larval development can significantly affect adult behavior. Several devices which are employed for killing the honeybee ectoparasite Varroa destructor rely on short-term hyperthermia in the honeybee hive. The device used here applies 43.7 °C for 2 h, which is highly effective in killing the mites. We study how short-term hyperthermia affects worker brood and behavior of emerging adult bees. Sucrose responsiveness was strongly reduced after treatment of larvae early or late of larval development. Hyperthermia significantly enhanced life span, particularly in bees receiving treated early in larval development. To ask whether increased life span correlated with foraging performance, we used radio frequency identification (RFID). Onset and offset of foraging behavior as well as foraging trip duration and lifetime foraging effort were unaffected by hyperthermia treatment as prepupa. KW - temperature KW - Varroa destructor KW - worker behavior KW - Apis mellifera KW - RFID KW - température KW - Varroa destructor KW - comportement des travailleurs KW - Apis mellifera KW - RFID KW - Temperatur KW - Varroa destructor KW - Bienenverhalten KW - Apis mellifera KW - RFID Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-232462 SN - 0044-8435 VL - 51 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schilcher, Felix A1 - Hilsmann, Lioba A1 - Rauscher, Lisa A1 - Değirmenci, Laura A1 - Krischke, Markus A1 - Krischke, Beate A1 - Ankenbrand, Markus A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin A1 - Mueller, Martin J. A1 - Steffan-Dewenter, Ingolf A1 - Scheiner, Ricarda T1 - In vitro rearing changes social task performance and physiology in honeybees JF - Insects N2 - In vitro rearing of honeybee larvae is an established method that enables exact control and monitoring of developmental factors and allows controlled application of pesticides or pathogens. However, only a few studies have investigated how the rearing method itself affects the behavior of the resulting adult honeybees. We raised honeybees in vitro according to a standardized protocol: marking the emerging honeybees individually and inserting them into established colonies. Subsequently, we investigated the behavioral performance of nurse bees and foragers and quantified the physiological factors underlying the social organization. Adult honeybees raised in vitro differed from naturally reared honeybees in their probability of performing social tasks. Further, in vitro-reared bees foraged for a shorter duration in their life and performed fewer foraging trips. Nursing behavior appeared to be unaffected by rearing condition. Weight was also unaffected by rearing condition. Interestingly, juvenile hormone titers, which normally increase strongly around the time when a honeybee becomes a forager, were significantly lower in three- and four-week-old in vitro bees. The effects of the rearing environment on individual sucrose responsiveness and lipid levels were rather minor. These data suggest that larval rearing conditions can affect the task performance and physiology of adult bees despite equal weight, pointing to an important role of the colony environment for these factors. Our observations of behavior and metabolic pathways offer important novel insight into how the rearing environment affects adult honeybees. KW - honeybee KW - artificial rearing KW - behavior KW - in vitro KW - juvenile hormone KW - triglycerides KW - PER KW - foraging KW - nursing Y1 - 2021 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-252305 SN - 2075-4450 VL - 13 IS - 1 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kohl, Patrick L. A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin A1 - Steffan-Dewenter, Ingolf T1 - Population demography of feral honeybee colonies in central European forests JF - Royal Society Open Science N2 - European honeybee populations are considered to consist only of managed colonies, but recent censuses have revealed that wild/feral colonies still occur in various countries. To gauge the ecological and evolutionary relevance of wild-living honeybees, information is needed on their population demography. We monitored feral honeybee colonies in German forests for up to 4 years through regular inspections of woodpecker cavity trees and microsatellite genotyping. Each summer, about 10% of the trees were occupied, corresponding to average densities of 0.23 feral colonies km\(^{−2}\) (an estimated 5% of the regional honeybee populations). Populations decreased moderately until autumn but dropped massively during winter, so that their densities were only about 0.02 colonies km\(^{−2}\) in early spring. During the reproductive (swarming) season, in May and June, populations recovered, with new swarms preferring nest sites that had been occupied in the previous year. The annual survival rate and the estimated lifespan of feral colonies (n = 112) were 10.6% and 0.6 years, respectively. We conclude that managed forests in Germany do not harbour self-sustaining feral honeybee populations, but they are recolonized every year by swarms escaping from apiaries. KW - pollinator decline KW - nest site selection KW - life-history traits KW - wild honeybees KW - beech forests KW - swarming Y1 - 2022 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-301335 SN - 2054-5703 VL - 9 IS - 8 ER - TY - THES A1 - Rutschmann, Benjamin T1 - Occurrence and population density of wild-living honey bees in Europe and the impact of different habitat types on their foraging and overwintering success T1 - Vorkommen und Populationsdichte von wild lebenden Honigbienen in Europa und die Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Habitattypen auf ihr Sammelverhalten und den Überwinterungserfolg N2 - The original habitat of native European honey bees (\(Apis\) \(mellifera\)) is forest, but currently there is a lack of data about the occurrence of wild honey bee populations in Europe. Prior to being kept by humans in hives, honey bees nested as wild species in hollow trees in temperate forests. However, in the 20th century, intensification of silviculture and agriculture with accompanying losses of nesting sites and depletion of food resources caused population declines in Europe. When the varroa mite (Varroa destructor), an invasive ectoparasite from Asia, was introduced in the late 1970s, wild honey bees were thought to be eradicated in Europe. Nevertheless, sporadic, mostly anecdotal, reports from ornithologists or forest ecologists indicated that honey bee colonies still occupy European forest areas. In my thesis I hypothesize that near-natural deciduous forests may provide sufficient large networks of nesting sites representing refugia for wild-living honey bees. Using two special search techniques, i.e. the tracking of flight routes of honey bee foragers (the “beelining” method) and the inspection of known cavity trees, I collected for the first time data on the occurrence and density of wild-living honey bees in forest areas in Germany (CHAPTER 3). I found wild-living honey bee colonies in the Hainich national park at low densities in two succeeding years. In another forest region, I checked known habitat trees containing black woodpecker cavities for occupation by wild-living honey bee colonies. It turned out that honey bees regularly use these cavities and occur in similar densities in both studied forest regions, independent of the applied detection method. Extrapolating these densities to all German forest areas, I estimate several thousand wild-living colonies in Germany that potentially interact in different ways with the forest environment. I conclude that honey bees regularly colonize forest areas in Germany and that networks of mapped woodpecker cavities offer unique possibilities to study the ecology of wild-living honey bees over several years. While their population status is ambiguous and the density of colonies low, the fact that honey bees can still be found in forests poses questions about food supply in forest environments. Consequently, I investigated the suitability of woodlands as a honey bee foraging habitat (CHAPTER 4). As their native habitat, forests are assumed to provide important pollen and nectar sources for honey bee colonies. However, resource supply might be spatially and temporally restricted and landscape-scale studies in European forest regions are lacking. Therefore, I set up twelve honey bee colonies in observation hives at locations with varying degree of forest cover. Capitalizing on the unique communication behaviour, the waggle dance, I examined the foraging distances and habitat preferences of honey bees over almost an entire foraging season. Moreover, by connecting this decoded dance information with colony weight recordings, I could draw conclusions about the contribution of the different habitat types to honey yield. Foraging distances generally increased with the amount of forest in the surrounding landscape. Yet, forest cover did not have an effect on colony weight. Compared to expectations based on the proportions of different habitats in the surroundings, colonies foraged more frequently in cropland and grasslands than in deciduous and coniferous forests, especially in late summer when pollen foraging in the forest is most difficult. In contrast, colonies used forests for nectar/honeydew foraging in early summer during times of colony weight gain emphasizing forests as a temporarily significant source of carbohydrates. Importantly, my study shows that the ecological and economic value of managed forest as habitat for honey bees and other wild pollinators can be significantly increased by the continuous provision of floral resources, especially for pollen foraging. The density of these wild-living honey bee colonies and their survival is driven by several factors that vary locally, making it crucial to compare results in different regions. Therefore, I investigated a wild-living honey bee population in Galicia in north-western Spain, where colonies were observed to reside in hollow electric poles (CHAPTER 5). The observed colony density only in these poles was almost twice as high as in German forest areas, suggesting generally more suitable resource conditions for the bees in Galicia. Based on morphometric analyses of their wing venation patterns, I assigned the colonies to the native evolutionary lineage (M-lineage) where the particularly threatened subspecies \(Apis\) \(mellifera\) \(iberiensis\) also belongs to. Averaged over two consecutive years, almost half of the colonies survived winter (23 out of 52). Interestingly, semi-natural areas both increased abundance and subsequent colony survival. Colonies surrounded by more semi-natural habitat (and therefore less intensive cropland) had an elevated overwintering probability, indicating that colonies need a certain amount of semi-natural habitat in the landscape to survive. Due to their ease of access these power poles in Galicia are, ideally suited to assess the population demography of wild-living Galician honey bee colonies through a long-term monitoring. In a nutshell, my thesis indicates that honey bees in Europe always existed in the wild. I performed the first survey of wild-living bee density yet done in Germany and Spain. My thesis identifies the landscape as a major factor that compromises winter survival and reports the first data on overwintering rates of wild-living honey bees in Europe. Besides, I established methods to efficiently detect wild-living honey bees in different habitat. While colonies can be found all over Europe, their survival and viability depend on unpolluted, flower rich habitats. The protection of near-natural habitat and of nesting sites is of paramount importance for the conservation of wild-living honey bees in Europe.   N2 - Das ursprüngliche Habitat der Westlichen Honigbiene (\(Apis\) \(mellifera\)) ist der Wald, doch derzeit fehlt es an Daten über das Vorkommen von wilden Honigbienenpopulationen in Europa. Bevor die Honigbiene von Menschen in künstlichen Behausungen gehalten wurde, nistete sie in den gemäßigten Breiten in hohlen Bäumen als wild lebende Art. Doch die Intensivierung der Forst- und Landwirtschaft, der damit einhergehende Verlust von Nistplätzen und die Verschlechterung der Nahrungsressourcen führten zu einem Rückgang der Honigbienenpopulationen im 20. Jahrhundert. Nachdem die Varroa-Milbe (Varroa destructor), ein invasiver Ektoparasit, in den späten 1970er-Jahren aus Asien eingeschleppt wurde, nahm man an, dass wilde Honigbienen in Europa ausgestorben seien. Nichtsdestotrotz gaben sporadische, hauptsächlich anekdotische Berichte von Ornithologen oder Waldökologen Anlass zur Vermutung, dass Honigbienenvölker immer noch in europäischen Wäldern zu finden seien. In meiner vorliegenden Dissertation stelle ich die Hypothese auf, dass naturnahe Laubwälder ein ausreichend großes Netz von Nistplätzen bieten und als Zufluchtsorte für wild lebende Honigbienen fungieren können. Mit Hilfe zweier spezieller Suchtechniken – dem Nachverfolgen der Flugrouten von Honigbienen-Sammlerinnen (die ‚Bee-Lining‘-Methode) und der Inspektion bekannter Baumhöhlen – habe ich erstmalig Daten über das Vorkommen und die Populationsdichte von wild lebenden Honigbienen in deutschen Waldgebieten gesammelt (CHAPTER 3). In zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Jahren habe ich wild lebende Honigbienenvölker im Hainich Nationalpark entdeckt, wobei die Populationsdichten gering waren. In einem anderen Waldgebiet habe ich kartierte Habitatbäume mit Höhlen des Schwarzspechts auf ihre Besiedlung mit Honigbienenvölker hin überprüft. Es stellte sich heraus, dass Honigbienen diese Schwarzspechthöhlen regelmäßig nutzen und in ähnlich niedrigen Dichten in beiden untersuchten Waldgebieten vorkommen. Mittels Extrapolation schätze ich die Zahl der wild lebenden Bienenvölker in allen deutschen Waldgebieten auf mehrere Tausend, die auf vielfältige Weise mit der Waldumgebung interagieren können. Zusammenfassend zeigte sich, dass Honigbienen regelmäßig deutsche Waldgebiete bewohnen und dass Daten über kartierte Spechthöhlen eine einmalige Möglichkeit bieten, die Ökologie der Honigbienen als Wildtier mittels eines Langzeitmonitorings zu untersuchen. Auch wenn der Populationsstatus noch ungeklärt und die Populationsdichte gering ist, wirft die Existenz wild lebender Honigbienen Fragen bezüglich der Nahrungsversorgung im Wald auf. Folglich habe ich untersucht, ob eine ausreichende Futterversorgung für Honigbienen in Wäldern gegeben ist (CHAPTER 4). Wälder gelten als der ursprüngliche Lebensraum der Westlichen Honigbiene und man nimmt an, dass sie wichtige Pollen- und Nektarquellen für Honigbienenvölker liefern. Das Nahrungsangebot könnte jedoch räumlich und zeitlich begrenzt sein, wobei hierzu bislang Studien in europäischen Waldregionen fehlen. Daher habe ich zwölf Honigbienenvölker in Beobachtungsstöcken, jeweils an Orten mit unterschiedlichem Waldanteil, aufgestellt. Indem ich mir das einzigartige Kommunikationsverhalten – den Schwänzeltanz – zu Nutzen machte, untersuchte ich Sammeldistanzen und Habitatpräferenzen von Honigbienen über fast eine ganze Bienensaison hinweg. Darüber hinaus konnte ich durch die Verknüpfung der entschlüsselten Tanzinformationen mit Gewichtsaufzeichnungen der Bienenvölker Rückschlüsse auf den Beitrag der verschiedenen Habitattypen zum Honigertrag der Völker ziehen. Die Entfernungen bei der Nahrungssuche nahmen grundsätzlich mit dem Waldanteil in der umgebenden Landschaft zu. Obwohl Bienenvölker, die tiefer im Wald stationiert waren, weiter fliegen mussten, war ihre Gewichtszunahme nicht reduziert. Im Vergleich zu den Erwartungen, die sich aus den flächenmäßigen Anteilen der verschiedenen Habitate in der Umgebung ergeben, sammelten die Völker häufiger in Acker- und Grasland als in Laub- und Nadelwald, wobei der Spätsommer die schwierigste Zeit für die Pollenversorgung im Wald war. Auf die Phase im Frühsommer von Mitte Mai bis Mitte Juli bezogen, in der die Völker an Gewicht zunahmen, wurde der Wald zum Sammeln für Nektar/Honigtau beinahe erwartungsgemäß genutzt. Das unterstreicht die Bedeutung des Waldes als wichtige Quelle für Kohlenhydrate während eines kurzen Zeitraums im Jahr. Meine Untersuchungen zeigen, dass der ökologische und ökonomische Wert von Wirtschaftswald als Lebensraum für Honigbienen und andere Bestäuber durch die kontinuierliche Versorgung von Blütenressourcen, insbesondere in Bezug auf Pollen, erheblich gesteigert werden kann. Die Dichte wild lebender Honigbienenvölker und deren Überleben ist durch mehrere Faktoren bestimmt die lokal variieren, weshalb es äußerst wichtig ist, die Ergebnisse hinsichtlich verschiedener Regionen zu vergleichen. Im Zuge dieser Arbeit habe ich daher zusätzlich noch eine wild lebende Honigbienenpopulation in Galicien im Nordwesten Spaniens untersucht, wo die Bienenvölker in hohlen Strommasten nisteten (CHAPTER 5). Die beobachtete Völkerdichte war allein in diesen Strommasten fast doppelt so hoch wie in deutschen Waldgebieten, was auf grundsätzlich geeignetere Bedingungen für Bienen in Galicien schließen lässt. Anhand morphometrischer Analysen der Flügeläderung habe ich die Bienenvölker der einheimischen Evolutionslinie (M-Linie) zugeordnet, zu der auch die besonders bedrohte Unterart \(Apis\) \(mellifera\) \(iberiensis\) gehört. In zwei aufeinander folgenden Jahren überlebte im Durchschnitt fast die Hälfte der Bienenvölker den Winter (23 von 52). Interessanterweise waren in naturnahen Gebieten sowohl die Häufigkeit als auch das Überleben der Bienenvölker höher. Kolonien, die von mehr naturnahen Lebensräumen (und damit weniger intensiv genutzten Ackerflächen) umgeben waren, wiesen eine höhere Überwinterungswahrscheinlichkeit auf, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Kolonien einen gewissen Anteil an naturnahem Lebensraum in der Landschaft zum Überleben benötigen. Diese Strommasten in Galicien sind aufgrund ihrer leichten Zugänglichkeit ideal geeignet, um die Populationsdemografie der dortigen wild lebenden Honigbienen durch ein Langzeit-Monitoring zu untersuchen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass Honigbienen wohl ununterbrochen als wild lebende Spezies in Europa existierten. Im Zuge meiner Doktorarbeit habe ich die erste quantitative Untersuchung wild lebender Honigbienen in Deutschland und Spanien durchgeführt. Meinen Ergebnissen zufolge ist die Landschaft ein entscheidender Faktor, der das Winterüberleben beeinflusst. Zudem beinhaltet meine Arbeit die ersten Daten über Überwinterungsraten von wild lebenden Honigbienen in Europa. Weiters habe ich Methoden entwickelt, um wild lebende Honigbienen in verschiedenen Lebensräumen zuverlässig und schnell zu finden. Alle drei Studien meiner Dissertation betonen, wie wichtig es ist, naturnahe Gebiete für den Schutz von wild lebenden Honigbienen zu erhalten. Zwar sind wild lebende Bienenvölker überall in Europa zu finden, doch ihre Überlebensfähigkeit hängt von blütenreichen, nicht mit Pestiziden belasteten Lebensräumen ab. Der Schutz von Lebensräumen und Nistplätzen ist für die Erhaltung der wild lebenden Honigbienen in Europa von größter Bedeutung. KW - Biene KW - wild-living honey bees KW - honey bee density KW - feral bees KW - forest landscape KW - waggle dance decoding KW - bee-lining Y1 - 2023 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-286732 ER -