TY - JOUR A1 - Subbarayal, Prema A1 - Karunakaran, Karthika A1 - Winkler, Ann-Cathrin A1 - Rother, Marion A1 - Gonzalez, Erik A1 - Meyer, Thomas F. A1 - Rudel, Thomas T1 - EphrinA2 Receptor (EphA2) Is an Invasion and Intracellular Signaling Receptor for Chlamydia trachomatis JF - PLoS Pathogens N2 - The obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis invades into host cells to replicate inside a membrane-bound vacuole called inclusion. Multiple different host proteins are recruited to the inclusion and are functionally modulated to support chlamydial development. Invaded and replicating Chlamydia induces a long-lasting activation of the PI3 kinase signaling pathway that is required for efficient replication. We identified the cell surface tyrosine kinase EphrinA2 receptor (EphA2) as a chlamydial adherence and invasion receptor that induces PI3 kinase (PI3K) activation, promoting chlamydial replication. Interfering with binding of C. trachomatis serovar L2 (Ctr) to EphA2, downregulation of EphA2 expression or inhibition of EphA2 activity significantly reduced Ctr infection. Ctr interacts with and activates EphA2 on the cell surface resulting in Ctr and receptor internalization. During chlamydial replication, EphA2 remains active accumulating around the inclusion and interacts with the p85 regulatory subunit of PI3K to support the activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway that is required for normal chlamydial development. Overexpression of full length EphA2, but not the mutant form lacking the intracellular cytoplasmic domain, enhanced PI3K activation and Ctr infection. Despite the depletion of EphA2 from the cell surface, Ctr infection induces upregulation of EphA2 through the activation of the ERK pathway, which keeps the infected cell in an apoptosis-resistant state. The significance of EphA2 as an entry and intracellular signaling receptor was also observed with the urogenital C. trachomatis-serovar D. Our findings provide the first evidence for a host cell surface receptor that is exploited for invasion as well as for receptor-mediated intracellular signaling to facilitate chlamydial replication. In addition, the engagement of a cell surface receptor at the inclusion membrane is a new mechanism by which Chlamydia subverts the host cell and induces apoptosis resistance. KW - membrane proteins KW - chlamydia infection KW - chlamydia trachomatis KW - chlamydia KW - HeLa cells KW - apoptosis KW - host cells KW - membrane receptor signaling Y1 - 2015 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-125566 VL - 11 IS - 4 ER - TY - THES A1 - Winkler, Ann-Cathrin Nicole T1 - Identification of human host cell factors involved in \(Staphylococcus\) \(aureus\) 6850 infection T1 - Identifizierung von humanen Wirtszellfaktoren die eine Rolle bei der \(Staphylococcus\) \(aureus\) Infektion spielen N2 - Staphylococcus aureus is both a human commensal and a pathogen. 20%-30% of all individuals are permanently or occasionally carriers of S. aureus without any symptoms. In contrast to this, S. aureus can cause life-threatening diseases e.g. endocarditis, osteomyelitis or sepsis. Here, the increase in antibiotic resistances makes it more and more difficult to treat these infections and hence the number of fatalities rises constantly. Since the pharmaceutical industry has no fundamentally new antibiotics in their pipeline, it is essential to better understand the interplay between S. aureus and the human host cell in order to find new, innovative treatment options. In this study, a RNA interference based whole genome pool screen was performed to identify human proteins, which play a role during S. aureus infections. Since 1,600 invasion and 2,271 cell death linked factors were enriched at least 2 fold, the big challenge was to filter out the important ones. Here, a STRING pathway analysis proved to be the best option. Subsequently, the identified hits were validated with the help of inhibitors and a second, individualised small interfering RNA-based screen. In the course of this work two important steps were identified, that are critical for host cell death: the first is bacterial invasion, the second phagosomal escape. The second step is obligatory for intracellular bacterial replication and subsequent host cell death. Invasion in turn is determining for all following events. Accordingly, the effect of the identified factors towards these two crucial steps was determined. Under screening conditions, escape was indirectly measured via intracellular replication. Three inhibitors (JNKII, Methyl-beta-cyclodeytrin, 9-Phenantrol) could be identified for the invasion process. In addition, siRNAs targeted against 16 different genes (including CAPN2, CAPN4 and PIK3CG), could significantly reduce bacterial invasion. Seven siRNAs (FPR2, CAPN4, JUN, LYN, HRAS, AKT1, ITGAM) were able to inhibit intracellular replication significantly. Further studies showed that the IP3 receptor inhibitor 2-APB, the calpain inhibitor calpeptin and the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 are able to prevent phagosomal escape and as a consequence intracellular replication and host cell death. In this context the role of calpains, calcium, the proteasome and the mitochondrial membrane potential was further investigated in cell culture. Here, an antagonistic behaviour of calpain 1 and 2 during bacterial invasion was observed. Intracellular calcium signalling plays a major role, since its inhibition protects host cells from death. Beside this, the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential is characteristic for S. aureus infection but not responsible for host cell death. The reduction of membrane potential can be significantly diminished by the inhibition of the mitochondrial Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. All together, this work shows that human host cells massively contribute to different steps in S. aureus infection rather than being simply killed by bacterial pore-forming toxins. Various individual host cell factors were identified, which contribute either to invasion or to phagosomal escape and therefore to S. aureus induced cytotoxicity. Finally, several inhibitors of S. aureus infection were identified. One of them, 2-APB, was already tested in a sepsis mouse model and reduced bacterial load of kidneys. Thus, this study shows valuable evidence for novel treatment options against S. aureus infections, based on the manipulation of host cell signalling cascades. N2 - Staphylococcus aureus kann sowohl ein Bestandteil der natürlichen Hautflora als auch ein Krankheitserreger sein. 20%-30% aller Menschen werden, permanent oder zeitweise, von S. aureus besiedelt, ohne Krankheitssymptome aufzuweisen. Im Gegensatz dazu kann S. aureus lebensbedrohliche Krankheiten wie Endokarditis, Osteomyelitis oder Sepsis verursachen. Diese Infektionen können immer schlechter behandelt werden, da immer mehr Stämme Resistenzen gegen die vorhandenen Antibiotika aufweisen. Dies führt zu einer steigenden Anzahl an Todesfällen, die auf Staphylokokkeninfektionen zurückzuführen sind. Da die Pharmaindustrie keine grundlegend neuen Antibiotika kurz vor der Marktreife hat, ist ein besseres Verständnis für das Wechselspiel zwischen Staphylokokken und ihren menschlichen Wirtszellen unbedingt notwendig, um neue, innovative Behandlungsmöglichkeiten finden zu können. Dafür wurde in dieser Arbeit ein genomweiter RNA-interferenz basierter Screen durchgeführt. Es sollten so die Proteine identifiziert werden, die eine Rolle bei der Staphylokokkeninfektion spielen. Da 1.600 invasionsrelevante und 2.271 zelltodrelevante Faktoren mindestens 2-fach angereichert waren, musste ein Weg gefunden werden die wichtigen Faktoren herauszufiltern. Eine STRING-Pathwayanalyse stellte sich als die beste Methode hierfür heraus. In einem zweiten Schritt wurden die so identifizierten Faktoren mit Inhibitoren oder einzelnen siRNAs ein weiteres Mal herunterreguliert, um ihre tatsächlichen Auswirkungen auf den Infektionsverlauf zu untersuchen. Im Verlauf dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass dem S. aureus induzierten Wirtszelltod mindestens zwei wichtige Schritte vorausgehen müssen. Erstens die Invasion der Wirtszelle und zweitens der Ausbruch aus dem Phagosom. Nur so können sich im dritten Schritt die Bakterien intrazellulär vermehren und die Zelle töten. Daher wurde der Einfluss der identifizierten Faktoren auf diese beiden entscheidenden Prozesse untersucht. Der Ausbruch wurde unter Screenkonditionen indirekt über die intrazelluläre Vermehrung bestimmt. Es konnten drei Inhibitoren (JNKII, Methyl-beta-cyclodeytrin, 9-Phenantrol) identifiziert werden, die die bakterielle Invasion vermindern. Darüber hinaus wurden 16 Proteine (unter anderem CAPN2, CAPN4 und PIK3CG) gefunden, deren Herunterregulation durch siRNAs, eine signifikant reduzierte Invasion zur Folge hatten. Sieben siRNAs (FPR2, CAPN4, JUN, LYN, HRAS, AKT1, ITGAM) waren in der Lage die intrazelluläre Vermehrung signifikant zu verringern. In nachfolgenden Versuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass der IP3-Rezeptorinhibitor 2-APB, der Calpaininhibitor Calpeptin und der Proteasominhibitor MG-132 den Ausbruch aus dem Phagosom, sowie die darauffolgenden Ereignisse (intrazelluläre Vermehrung und Wirtszelltod) inhibieren können. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden die Einflüsse von Calpainen, Calcium, dem Proteasom sowie dem mitochondrialen Membranpotentialverlust im Zellkulturmodell im Detail weiter untersucht. So konnte eine gegensätzliche Rolle von Calpain 1 und 2 bei der S. aureus Invasion festgestellt werden. Die intrazelluläre calciumabhängige Signalweiterleitung spielt eine bedeutende Rolle bei der S. aureus Infektion, da ihre Inhibition eine normale Infektion verhindert. Das mitochondriale Membranpotential (MMP) sinkt während einer S. aureus infektion, ist aber nicht für den Zelltod verantwortlich. Das Sinken des MMPs kann mit einem Inhibitor, der den mitochondrialen Na+/Ca2+ Austausch verhindert, signifikant reduziert werden. Zusammenfassend zeigt diese Arbeit, dass die menschliche Wirtszelle selbst relevant zu den verschiedenen Schritten der Staphylokokkeninfektion beiträgt, und nicht einfach, wie häufig angenommen, von porenbildenden bakteriellen Toxinen zerstört wird. Entsprechend konnten einzelne Wirtszellproteine identifiziert werden, die entweder zur bakteriellen Invasion oder zum phagosomalen Ausbruch und somit zum induzierten Wirtszelltod beitragen. Überdies konnte gezeigt werden, dass Inhibitoren, die diese Wirtszellproteine hemmen, die Wirtszellen zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten vor einer S. aureus Infektion schützen können. Folglich liefert diese Arbeit wertvolle Hinweise für neue Behandlungsmöglichkeiten von S. aureus Infektionen, die auf der Manipulation von Wirtszellsignalkaskaden beruhen. KW - Staphylococcus aureus KW - Wirtszelle KW - RNS-Interferenz KW - Host cell death KW - RNAi KW - 2-APB KW - intracellular replication KW - calpain KW - Human Host KW - Inhibitor Y1 - 2015 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-114300 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Stelzner, Kathrin A1 - Winkler, Ann-Cathrin A1 - Liang, Chunguang A1 - Boyny, Aziza A1 - Ade, Carsten P. A1 - Dandekar, Thomas A1 - Fraunholz, Martin J. A1 - Rudel, Thomas T1 - Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus Perturbs the Host Cell Ca\(^{2+}\) Homeostasis To Promote Cell Death JF - mBio N2 - The opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus causes serious infectious diseases that range from superficial skin and soft tissue infections to necrotizing pneumonia and sepsis. While classically regarded as an extracellular pathogen, S. aureus is able to invade and survive within human cells. Host cell exit is associated with cell death, tissue destruction, and the spread of infection. The exact molecular mechanism employed by S. aureus to escape the host cell is still unclear. In this study, we performed a genome-wide small hairpin RNA (shRNA) screen and identified the calcium signaling pathway as being involved in intracellular infection. S. aureus induced a massive cytosolic Ca\(^{2+}\) increase in epithelial host cells after invasion and intracellular replication of the pathogen. This was paralleled by a decrease in endoplasmic reticulum Ca\(^{2+}\) concentration. Additionally, calcium ions from the extracellular space contributed to the cytosolic Ca2+ increase. As a consequence, we observed that the cytoplasmic Ca\(^{2+}\) rise led to an increase in mitochondrial Ca\(^{2+}\) concentration, the activation of calpains and caspases, and eventually to cell lysis of S. aureus-infected cells. Our study therefore suggests that intracellular S. aureus disturbs the host cell Ca\(^{2+}\) homeostasis and induces cytoplasmic Ca\(^{2+}\) overload, which results in both apoptotic and necrotic cell death in parallel or succession. IMPORTANCE Despite being regarded as an extracellular bacterium, the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus can invade and survive within human cells. The intracellular niche is considered a hideout from the host immune system and antibiotic treatment and allows bacterial proliferation. Subsequently, the intracellular bacterium induces host cell death, which may facilitate the spread of infection and tissue destruction. So far, host cell factors exploited by intracellular S. aureus to promote cell death are only poorly characterized. We performed a genome-wide screen and found the calcium signaling pathway to play a role in S. aureus invasion and cytotoxicity. The intracellular bacterium induces a cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Ca\(^{2+}\) overload, which results in host cell death. Thus, this study first showed how an intracellular bacterium perturbs the host cell Ca\(^{2+}\) homeostasis." KW - Staphylococcus aureus KW - calcium signaling pathway KW - cell death KW - facultatively intracellular pathogens Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-231448 VL - 11 ER -