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Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a promising therapy for various malignancies and immune deficiency diseases, but it is often associated with graft versus host disease (GvHD), a life-threatening complication arising from immunological incompatibility between donor T cells and host tissues. Current standard therapies for GvHD involve the use of calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) such as cyclosporine A (CsA) and tacrolimus (FK506), which effectively suppress T cell activation and proliferation. However, these drugs also impair the graft versus leukemia (GvL) effect, which is the advantageous ability of donor T cells to eliminate malignant cells.
Our previous studies demonstrated that the selective deletion of one or two members of the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) transcription factor family in donor T cells effectively prevented harmful GvHD without compromising GvL activity. This finding highlighted the potential of NFAT as a therapeutic target for GvHD.
In this study, we developed and evaluated novel treatment strategies that specifically target NFAT during allogeneic HSCT. We focused on the development of small molecules that mimic the PxIxIT motif of NFAT, thereby competitively inhibiting its binding to CN (CN) without affecting CN phosphatase activity. We identified two promising candidates, C17 and MRD37, and evaluated their efficacy in inhibiting NFAT and suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Among these molecules, MRD37 demonstrated the highest potency in selectively inhibiting NFAT at a sub-IC50 concentration without compromising the functional capacity of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in vitro. Furthermore, we demonstrated that MRD37 could effectively protect mice from major mismatch GvHD in vivo. This protection was initially predicted to be due to the enhanced presence of Tregs and Tr1-type cells but when pretreated T cells devoid of Tregs were transplanted it unraveled an additional increase of Th2-like cytokine release. Finally, our in vitro studies on human T cells confirmed that MRD37 could specifically inhibit NFAT while preserving the Treg population, suggesting its potential as a novel therapeutic strategy for GvHD.
Our findings provide compelling evidence for the development of MRD37 as promising alternative to CNIs in mitigating GvHD.
Die Atherosklerose ist als Ursache kardiovaskulärer Erkrankungen, welche die häufigste Todesursache weltweit darstellen, von großer klinischer und wissenschaftlicher Relevanz. Atherosklerose ist charakterisiert durch Einlagerungen von Lipiden in die Gefäßwand, welche zur Ausbildung von Plaques führen. Als Folge wird eine chronische Entzündungsreaktion eingeleitet, die durch spezifische Immunzellen, unter anderem T-Lymphozyten, und komplexe molekulare Prozesse aufrechterhalten wird. Durch eine verminderte Sauerstoffdiffusionskapazität und eine hohe Zelldichte ist das Milieu in den Plaques hypoxisch. Zur zellulären Anpassung an ein solches hypoxisches Milieu werden Hypoxie-induzierbare Faktoren (HIF) in den Immunzellen stabilisiert. Der Transkriptionsfaktor HIF-1 ist ein heterodimeres Protein, welches die Transkription bestimmter Zielgene initiiert, die den Zellen notwendige Adaptationen des Zellstoffwechsels an ein vermindertes Sauerstoffangebot ermöglichen.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand darin zu untersuchen, inwiefern sich ein Ausschalten des Transkriptionsfaktor HIF-1α selektiv in T-Lymphozyten auf Atherosklerose und Myokardinfarkt auswirkt. Die funktionelle Bedeutung von HIF-1α in T-Zellen in der Pathogenese dieser Erkrankungen wurde an zwei Mausmodellen untersucht.
Im Atherosklerose Modell wurde Biomaterial von LDLR-/- Mäusen mit T-Zell spezifischem Knockout von HIF-1α nach achtwöchiger fettreicher Western-Typ Diät untersucht. Histologisch zeigte sich eine vermehrte Plaqueausprägung und ein verminderter Makrophagenanteil in den Plaques. Durchflusszytometrisch und mittels qPCR konnten keine Unterschiede in der Lymphozytendifferenzierung in Milz und Lymphknoten dieser Mäuse nachgewiesen werden.
Im Myokardinfarkt-Modell mit T-Zell spezifischem HIF-1α Knockout konnte in früheren Untersuchungen der Arbeitsgruppe eine vergrößerte Infarktzone mit eingeschränkter kardialer Funktion nachgewiesen werden. Histologisch konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit hierfür kein zellmorphologisches Korrelat in Kardiomyozytengröße oder der Vaskularisation des Myokards gefunden werden.
In Zukunft könnte HIF-1α in T-Lymphozyten ein möglicher Angriffspunkt zur medikamentösen Prävention oder Therapie kardiovaskulärer Erkrankungen sein.
Studies on receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells from genetically modified mice
(2014)
Receptors with tyrosine-based signaling motifs control essential functions of hematopoietic cells, including lymphocytes and platelets. Downstream of the platelet receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI and the T cell receptor (TCR) the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) initiates a signaling cascade that involves kinases, adapter and effector proteins and finally leads to cellular activation. This thesis summarizes the results of three studies investigating different aspects of receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells.
In the first part, the impact of constitutive Ca2+ influx on TCR signaling and T cell physiology was investigated using a transgenic mouse line with a mutation in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). The elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ level resulted in an altered phosphorylation pattern of the key enzyme phospholipase (PL) Cγ1 in response to TCR stimulation, but without affecting its enzymatic activity. Withdrawal of extracellular Ca2+ or inhibition of the phosphatase calcineurin restored the normal phosphorylation pattern. In addition, there was a decrease in the release of Th2-type cytokines interleukin 4, 5 and 13 upon stimulation in vitro.
The second part of the thesis deals with the role of the adapter protein growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) in platelets using a megakaryocyte/platelet-specific knockout mouse line. Loss of Grb2 severely impaired signaling of GPVI and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2), a related hemITAM receptor. This was attributed to defective stabilization of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) signalosome and resulted in reduced adhesion, aggregation, Ca2+ mobilization and procoagulant activity downstream of (hem)ITAM-coupled receptors in vitro. In contrast, the signaling pathways of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the integrin αIIbβ3, which do not utilize the LAT signalosome, were unaffected. In vivo, the defective (hem)ITAM signaling caused prolonged bleeding times, however, thrombus formation was only affected under conditions where GPCR signaling was impaired (upon acetylsalicylic acid treatment). These results establish Grb2 as an important adapter protein in the propagation of GPVI- and CLEC-2-induced signals.
Finally, the proteolytic regulation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM)-bearing receptor CD84 in platelets was investigated. This study demonstrated that in mice CD84 is cleaved by two distinct and independent proteolytic mechanisms upon platelet activation: shedding of the extracellular part, which is exclusively mediated by a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 10 and cleavage of the intracellular C-terminus by the protease calpain. Finally, the analysis of soluble CD84 levels in the plasma of transgenic mice revealed that shedding of CD84 by ADAM10 occurs constitutively in vivo.
Bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) display a novel design among the class of bispecific antibodies and hold great promise to fight diverse cancers. BiTE molecules consist of two different binding entities derived from two human IgG antibodies connected by a short peptide linker. Their binding arms are directed against the CD3e chain of the T cell receptor on T cells and against an antigen that is specific for (e.g., CD19 for lymphoma in MT103) or over-expressed on (e.g., EpCAM for epithelial cancer in MT110) tumor cells. Without requirement for pre- or co-stimulation, BiTE molecules efficiently redirect CD3+ T cells towards tumor cells expressing the relevant target antigen. Only a BiTE molecule simultaneously bound to both tumor cell and T cell activates the T cell to exert its cytolytic function resulting in tumor cell death. In T cells stimulated with both BiTE and target cells, elevated levels of caspase activation and increased expression of cytotoxic and signaling proteins are observed. These include cytolytic proteins granzyme B and perforin, activation markers CD69 and CD25 and adhesion molecules CD2 and LFA-1. Activated T cells secrete the usual mix of cytokines, among them pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-g and TNF-a. The membrane of tumor cells expressing the relevant target antigen is perforated during the attack of BiTE-stimulated effector cells as can be concluded from adenylate kinase release from the cytosol of tumor cells. Ca2+-chelator EGTA completely blocked BiTE-mediated activation of caspases and tumor cell lysis. As perforin is strictly Ca2+-dependent, a major role for this pore-forming protein is assumed for the elimination of tumor cells via BiTE-stimulated T cells. Granzyme B and caspases are main players in BiTE-mediated elimination of tumor cells. Inhibitors of granzyme B or caspases reduce or block, respectively the activation of caspases. However, other signals of apoptosis (cleavage of PARP and fragmentation of DNA) were only reduced by granzyme B inhibitor or caspase inhibitor. Most interestingly, the lytic capacity of BiTE molecules was not impaired by granzyme B inhibitor or caspase inhibitor. It seems that there is no requirement for granzyme B and caspases to be present simultaneously. Instead the data presented provide evidence that they can be replaced one at a time by related proteins. Pre-incubation of effector cells with the glucocorticoids dexamethasone or methylprednisolone resulted in markedly decreased secretion of cytokines by T cells yet only a small reduction in the expression of activation markers and adhesion molecules on T cells and specific lysis of tumor cells upon BiTE stimulation. Soluble factors secreted in an undirected manner by BiTE-stimulated T cells do not mediate tumor cell death by themselves. Bystander cells negative for the antigen that is recognized by the BiTE molecule will not be compromised by BiTE activity. The cytokine TGF-b reduced proliferation as well as granzyme B and perforin expression of BiTE-stimulated T cells. Redirected lysis by BiTE-activated T cells was also decreased under the influence of TGF-b, however lysis was still performed at a reasonable rate (72 % of target cells). TGF-b does not exert a deleterious effect on lytic potential of BiTE-stimulated T cells. The minimal anticipated biological effect level for the BiTE MT110 was determined for the entry of MT110 into phase I clinical studies. Experiments analyzing redirected lysis of tumor cells, expression of activation marker CD25 and cytokine release by T cells revealed a MABEL value of 50 pg/ml for MT110.
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are small lipophilic compounds that mediate a plethora of biological effects by binding to the intracellular glucocorticoid receptor (GR) which, in turn, translocates to the nucleus and directly or indirectly regulates gene transcription. GCs remain the cornerstone in the treatment for a number of hematological malignancies, including leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma. Extensive literature suggests that the efficacy of GCs stems from their ability to mediate apoptosis. Despite the enormous strides made in our understanding of regulated cell death, the exact mechanism by which GCs cause apoptosis is still unknown. The data obtained so far provide strong evidence that gene transactivation by the GR underlies the initiation phase of GC-induced thymocyte apoptosis. Furthermore, the multicatalytic proteasome, several members of the Bcl-2 family, changes in calcium flux as well as caspases have been identified as important players in the execution phase of GC-mediated cell death. However, the exact sequence of events in this process still remains elusive. A major problem of the current discussion arises from the fact that different cell types, such as thymocytes, peripheral T cells and lymphoma cells are compared without acknowledging their different characteristics and gene expression profiles. Although it is generally assumed that GCs induce apoptosis via a conserved mechanism, this is not supported by any data. In other words, it is possible that thymocytes, peripheral T cells and lymphoma cells may undergo cell death along different pathways. We therefore wondered whether a unique signal transduction pathway is engaged by GCs to initiate and execute cell death in all types of T lymphocytes or whether distinct pathways exist. Therefore, we compared the role of the proteasome, various caspases, the lysosomal compartment and other factors in GC-induced apoptosis of murine thymocytes and peripheral T cells as well as T-ALL lymphoma cells. Our findings show that the initiation phase of GC-induced apoptosis is similar irrespective of the differentiation state of the cell. Apoptosis in both thymocytes and peripheral T cells is mediated by the GR and depends on gene transcription. In contrast, the execution phase significantly differs between thymocyte and peripheral T cells in its requirement for a number of signal transduction components. Whilst in thymocytes, the proteasome, caspases 3, 8 and 9 as well as cathepsin B play an important role in GC-induced apoptosis, these factors are dispensable for the induction of cell death in peripheral T cells. In contrast, changes in the expression and intracellular location of Bcl-2 family members do not appear to contribute to GC-induced apoptosis in either cell type. Importantly, our observation that GC treatment of thymocytes leads to an activation of the lysosomal protease cathepsin B and that this is an essential step in the induction of cell death by GCs, is the first indication that a lysosomal amplification loop is involved in this process. Analysis of GC-induced apoptosis in several T-ALL cell lines further indicates that the signaling pathway induced by GCs in thymocytes but not in peripheral T cells is shared by all lymphoma cell-types analyzed. Given the therapeutic importance of high-dose GC-therapy for the treatment of hematological malignancies, this finding could potentially form a basis for new anti-cancer strategies in the future, which specifically target tumor cells whilst leaving peripheral T cells of patients untouched.
In this project two novel murine autoimmune models were to be established in an attempt to further investigate the nervous system disorders of Multiple Sclerosis and Guillain Barré Syndrome. Previous experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) models have demonstrated that T cells play a major role in these diseases. Which roles CD4 and CD8 T cells specifically have in the initiation, propagation and termination of an autoimmune nervous system disorder remains controversial. To this end two transgenic mice specifically expressing the neo-antigen (Ag) ovalbumin (OVA) in either the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS) were to be generated. The myelin basic protein (MBP) is a major component of the myelin sheath both within the CNS and the PNS. Therefore the MBP promoter was employed for its distinct regulatory elements to facilitate exclusive CNS or PNS OVA expression. The adoptive transfer of OVA specific MHCI restricted (OT-I) and MHCII restricted (OT-II) TCR Tg T cells extended the OVA Tg mouse model by allowing potentially encephalitogenic T cells to be tracked in vivo. Specificity for the target Ag should enable the dynamic role of antigen specific T cells in neuroinflammatory diseases to be revealed in more detail.
The transcriptional repressor-Blimp-1 terminates differentiation of B lymphocytes as well as myeloid cells. Our data show that Blimp-1 is highly expressed in freshly isolated murine primary T lymphocytes, particularly its minor splice variant. Ectopic expression of Blimp-1 by retroviral transduction neither dramatically altered secretion of IFN-ã or IL-4 nor did it induce the ability to suppress as regulatory T cells. However, induction of Blimp-1 resulted in not only a significant reduction in the production of IL-2 but also an inability to proliferate as well as in the reduced viability. These results demonstrate that Blimp-1 might mark end stages of lineage differentiation in T cells.