@phdthesis{Waeldchen2020,
  author    = {W{\"a}ldchen, Felix},
  title     = {3D Single Molecule Imaging In Whole Cells Enabled By Lattice Light-Sheet Illumination},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-20711},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-207111},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Single molecule localization microscopy has seen a remarkable growth since its first experimental implementations about a decade ago. Despite its technical challenges, it is already widely used in medicine and biology and is valued as a unique tool to gain molecular information with high specificity. However, common illumination techniques do not allow the use of single molecule sensitive super-resolution microscopy techniques such as direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) for whole cell imaging. In addition, they can potentially alter the quantitative information. In this thesis, I combine dSTORM imaging in three dimensions with lattice lightsheet illumination to gain quantitative molecular information from cells unperturbed by the illumination and cover slip effects. Lattice light-sheet illumination uses optical lattices for beam shaping to restrict the illumination to the detectable volume. I describe the theoretical background needed for both techniques and detail the experimental realization of the system as well as the software that I developed to efficiently evaluate the data. Eventually, I will present key datasets that demonstrate the capabilities of the developed microscope system with and without dSTORM. My main goal here was to use these techniques for imaging the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM, also known as CD56) in whole cells. NCAM is a plasma membrane receptor known to play a key role in biological processes such as memory and learning. Combining dSTORM and lattice light-sheet illumination enables the collection of quantitative data of the distribution of molecules across the whole plasma membrane, and shows an accumulation of NCAM at cell-cell interfaces. The low phototoxicity of lattice light-sheet illumination further allows for tracking individual NCAM dimers in living cells, showing a significant dependence of its mobility on the actin skeleton of the cell.},
  subject      = {Einzelmolek{\"u}lmikroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Kuegel2015,
  author    = {K{\"u}gel, Jens},
  title     = {3d-{\"U}bergangsmetallphthalocyanin-Molek{\"u}le auf Metalloberfl{\"a}chen: Der Einfluss der d-Orbitalbesetzung},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-121059},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wird die Untersuchung von 3d-{\"U}bergangsmetallphthalocyanin- Molek{\"u}len ({\"U}MPc) - quadratisch-planaren organischen Molek{\"u}len, welche im Zentrum ein 3d-{\"U}bergangsmetallion besitzen - auf metallischen Oberfl{\"a}chen vorgestellt. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt dabei auf dem Einfluss der d-Orbitalbesetzung auf die magnetischen, elektronischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften der adsorbierten Molek{\"u}le, die mit Hilfe der Rastertunnelmikroskopie und -spektroskopie charakterisiert wurden. Die gewonnen Ergebnisse werden zum Teil mit theoretischen Berechnungen analysiert und interpretiert. Die erste H{\"a}lfte der experimentellen Auswertung behandelt die Untersuchung dieser Molek{\"u}le auf Ag(001) in Hinblick auf die Existenz einer magnetischen Wechselwirkung, bei der ein unkompensiertes magnetisches Moment des Molek{\"u}ls durch die Substratelektronen abgeschirmt wird. Dieser Effekt wird als Kondo-Abschirmung bezeichnet und erzeugt in der Zustandsdichte des Molek{\"u}ls eine Resonanz am Fermi-Niveau. Die Messungen zeigen, dass diese Resonanz ausschließlich am Zentralion von MnPc vorgefunden wird, wohingegen sie bei allen anderen 3d-{\"U}bergangsmetallphthalocyanin-Molek{\"u}len, die eine h{\"o}here d-Orbitalbesetzung besitzen, nicht vorhanden ist. Anhand theoretischer Berechnungen kann die Ursache f{\"u}r dieses Verhalten darauf zur{\"u}ckgef{\"u}hrt werden, dass von allen d-Orbitalen einzig das dz2-Orbital mit dem Substrat geeignet hybridisiert, um eine Kondo-Abschirmung zu erzeugen. Da ausschließlich MnPc einen unkompensierten Spin in diesem Orbital besitzt, kann die An- bzw. Abwesenheit des Kondo-Effekts auf die unterschiedliche Besetzung des dz2-Orbitals zur{\"u}ckgef{\"u}hrt werden. Neben der eben erw{\"a}hnten Kondo-Resonanz ist bei MnPc ein weiteres Merkmal am Fermi- Niveau {\"u}berlagert. Durch die Analyse der r{\"a}umlichen Verteilung, den Vergleich mit anderen Molek{\"u}len und der Manipulation des MnPc-Molek{\"u}ls kann gezeigt werden, dass es sich bei diesem Merkmal um einen d-Orbitalzustand handelt. Die Manipulation des Molek{\"u}ls durch gezieltes Entfernen von Wasserstoffatomen erm{\"o}glicht dar{\"u}ber hinaus die St{\"a}rke der Kondo-Abschirmung zu beeinflussen. In der zweiten H{\"a}lfte der experimentellen Auswertung werden Molek{\"u}le auf bismutinduzierten Oberfl{\"a}chenlegierungen der Edelmetalle Cu(111) und Ag(111) untersucht. Diese Legierungen zeichnen sich durch einen ausgepr{\"a}gten Rashba-Effekt aus, der durch eine Aufspaltung der Parabeldispersion und Aufhebung der Spin-Entartung im zweidimensionalen Elektronengas der Oberfl{\"a}chenlegierung charakterisiert ist. Das Wachstumsverhalten von CuPc und MnPc auf diesen Oberfl{\"a}chen zeigt ein sehr gegens{\"a}tzliches Verhalten. W{\"a}hrend bei MnPc die Substrat-Molek{\"u}l-Wechselwirkung dominant ist, wodurch diese Molek{\"u}le immer einen festen Adsorptionsplatz auf der Oberfl{\"a}che besitzen, ist diese Wechselwirkung bei CuPc schwach ausgepr{\"a}gt. Aus diesem Grund wandern die CuPc-Molek{\"u}le zu den Stufenkanten und bilden Cluster. Das unterschiedliche Wachstumsverhalten der Molek{\"u}le l{\"a}sst sich auf die partiell-gef{\"u}llten d-Orbitale von MnPc zur{\"u}ckf{\"u}hren, die aus der Molek{\"u}lebene ragen, mit dem Substrat hybridisieren und damit das Molek{\"u}l an das Substrat binden. Bei CuPc hingegen sind diese d-Orbitale gef{\"u}llt und die Hybridisierung kann nicht stattfinden. Im letzten Abschnitt werden die elektronischen und magnetischen Eigenschaften von MnPc auf diesen Substraten behandelt, die einige Besonderheiten aufweisen. So bildet sich durch die Adsorption des Molek{\"u}ls auf den Oberfl{\"a}chen eine Grenzschichtresonanz aus, die eine partielle F{\"u}llung erkennen l{\"a}sst. Spektroskopiedaten, aufgenommen am Ort der Grenzschichtresonanz, weisen eine symmetrisch um das Fermi-Niveau aufgespaltene Resonanz auf. Die Intensit{\"a}t der unter- und oberhalb der Fermi-Energie befindlichen Resonanz zeigen dabei ein komplement{\"a}res Verhalten bzgl. der jeweiligen Lage auf der Grenzschichtresonanz: An den Orten, an denen die Resonanz unterhalb des Fermi-Niveaus ihre maximale Intensit{\"a}t besitzt, ist die Resonanz oberhalb des Fermi-Niveaus nicht vorhanden und umgekehrt. Diese experimentellen Beobachtungen werden mit einem Modellansatz erkl{\"a}rt, welcher die Wirkung eines effektiven Magnetfeldes und eine Spin-Filterung postuliert.},
  subject      = {Phthalocyanin},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Sturm2015,
  author    = {Sturm, Volker J{\"o}rg Friedrich},
  title     = {\(^{19}F\) Magnetresonanztomographie zur Bildgebung von Infektionen im Zeitverlauf},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-122851},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  pages     = {114},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollten die M{\"o}glichkeiten der MR Tomographie erkundet werden bakterielle Infektionen im Zeitverlauf darzustellen. Genauer gesagt sollte das Potential der MR Tomographie anhand eines durch eine Infektion induzierten lokalisierten Abszesses unter Verwendung dreier unterschiedlicher MRT Methoden untersucht werden: Mittels nativem \(T_2\) Kontrast; der Verwendung von superparamagnetischen Eisenoxid Partieln (USPIO) als \(T_2^*\) Kontrastmittel; und dem Einsatz von Perfluorkarbonen (PFC) als \(^{19}F\) MRT Marker (siehe Kapitel 3). Wie erwartet f{\"u}hrte die durch die Infektion hervorgerufene Entz{\"u}ndung zu ver{\"a}nderten \(T_2\)-Zeiten, welche auf \(T_2\)-gewichteten MR Bildern eine Lokalisierung des Abszessbereiches erlauben. Jedoch eigneten sich diese Daten aufgrund der graduellen {\"A}nderung der \(T_2\)-Zeiten nicht, um eine klare Grenze zwischen Abszess und umliegendem Gewebe zu ziehen. Superparamagnetische Eisenoxidpartikel andererseit haben als MRT Kontrastmittel bereits in den letzten Jahren ihre F{\"a}higkeit unter Beweis gestellt Entz{\"u}ndungen [53, 58, 64] darzustellen. Die Anreicherung dieser Partikel am Rande des Abszesses [53], wie sie auch in unseren MR Daten zu beobachten war, erlaubte eine relativ scharfe Abgrenzung gegen{\"u}ber dem umgebenden Gewebe in der chronischen Phase der Infektion (Tag 9 p.i.). Hingegen gen{\"u}gte die nur sehr sp{\"a}rlichen Anreicherung von USPIO Partikeln in der akuten Phase der Infektion (Tag 3 p.i.) nicht f{\"u}r eine entsprechende Abgrenzung [58]. Aufgrund der sehr geringen biologischen H{\"a}ufigkeit und den sehr kurzen Relaxationszeiten von endogenem Fluor eignen sich Perfluorkarbone als Markersubstanz in der MR Tomographie von biologischen Systemen. Insbesondere da PFC Emulsionen durch phagozytierende Zellen aufgenommen werden und im Bereich von Entz{\"u}ndungen akkumulieren [30, 59]. In dieser Arbeit konnte anhand der erhaltenen MRT Daten eine Akkumulation von Perfluorkarbonen nicht nur in der chronischen Phase, sondern auch in der akuten Phase nachgewiesen werden. Diese Daten erlauben somit zu allen untersuchten Zeitpunkten eine Abgrenzung zwischen Infektion und umliegenden Gewebe. Aufgrund der besagten Vorteile wurden die Perfluorkarbone gew{\"a}hlt, um die M{\"o}glichkeiten der MR Tomographie zu testen, quantitative Informationen {\"u}ber die schwere der Infektion zu liefern. Als Referenz f{\"u}r die Bakterienbelastung wurden die Biolumineszenzbildgebung (BLI) [49, 50] und die Standardmethode zur Bestimmung der Bakterienbelastung cfu (koloniebildenden Einheiten) herangezogen. Eine Gegen{\"u}berstellung der zeitlichen Verl{\"a}ufe der durch die Biolumineszenzbildgebung und durch die cfu erhaltenen Daten liefert eine qualitative {\"U}bereinstimmung mit den durch die 19F MR Tomographie erhaltenen Daten. Dies trifft hierbei sowohl auf die {\"u}ber den gesamten Infektionsbereich hinweg summierten Signalamplituden, als auch auf das Volumen zu, in dem Fluor am Ort der Infektion akkumuliert wurde. Im Gegensatz zur Methode der cfu Bestimmung sind die MR Tomographie und die Biolumineszenzbildgebung nicht invasiv und erlauben die Verfolgung des Infektionsverlaufes an einem einzelnen Individuum. Hierzu ben{\"o}tigt, im Gegensatz zur MR Tomographie, die Methode der Biolumineszenzbildgebung jedoch einen speziellen Pathogenstamm. Dar{\"u}ber hinaus ist hervorzuheben, dass die MR Tomographie zudem die M{\"o}glichkeit bietet auch morphologische Informationen {\"u}ber den Infektionsbereich und seine Umgebung zu akquirieren. Gerade weil jede dieser Methoden die mit der Infektion einhergehenden Prozesse aus einer leicht anderen Blickrichtung betrachtet, erscheint es sinnvoll diese etablierte Untersuchungsplattform bestehend aus MRT, BLI und cfu {\"u}ber die in dieser Arbeit bearbeitete Fragestellung hinaus n{\"a}her zu untersuchen. Insbesondere der Aspekt inwieweit die drei Methoden sich gegenseitig erg{\"a}nzen, k{\"o}nnte einen tieferen Einblick in die Wechselwirkung zwischen Pathogen und Wirt erlauben. Auch wenn f{\"u}r die betrachtete Fragestellung bereits der hierdurchgef{\"u}hrte semiquanitative Ansatz zur Bestimmung der relativen Fluormengen am Ort der Infektion ausreichte, so ist doch im Allgemeinen w{\"u}nschenswert probenbezogen die Sensitivit{\"a}t der Spule und damit die G{\"u}te der Spulenabstimmung zu bestimmen. Hierzu ist jedoch die Aufnahme von \(B_1\)-Karten unabdingbar und wird entsprechend im Kapitel 4 \(Bloch-Siegert B_1^+-Mapping\) n{\"a}her addressiert. Der Schwerpunkt liegt hierbei, wie der Kapitelname bereits andeutet, auf der Bloch-Siegert Methode, die insbesondere in der pr{\"a}sentierten Implementierung in einer Turbo/ Multi Spin Echo Sequenz eine effiziente Nutzung der relativ langen \(T_\)2-Zeiten der Perfluorkarbone erlaubt. Da zudem die Bloch-Siegert-Methode eine rein phasenbasierte Methode ist, kann neben der aus den Daten erzeugten \(B_1\)-Karte zugleich ein unverf{\"a}lschtes Magnitudenbild generiert werden, wodurch eine sehr effiziente Nutzung der vorhandenen Messzeit erm{\"o}glicht wird. Diese Eigenschaft ist insbesondere f{\"u}r \(^{19}F\) Bildgebung von besonderem Interesse, da hier f{\"u}r jede Messung, aufgrund der {\"u}blicherweise relativ geringen Konzentration an Fluoratomen, lange Messzeiten ben{\"o}tigt werden. Zusammenfassend konnte anhand des untersuchten Tiermodells sowohl die F{\"a}higkeit der MR Tomographie nachgewiesen werden Infektionen im Zeitverlauf darzustellen, als auch die F{\"a}higkeit der MR Tomographie quantitative Informationen {\"u}ber den Verlauf der Infektion zu liefern. Desweiteren konnte eine M{\"o}glichkeit aufgezeigt werden, welche das Potential hat in vertretbarem Zeitrahmen auch in vivo B1+-Karten auf dem Fluorkanal zu erstellen und so einen zentralen Unsicherheitsfaktor, f{\"u}r Relaxometry und absolute Quantifizierung von \(^{19}F\) Daten in vivo, zu beseitigen.},
  subject      = {Kernspintomografie},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Rueth2011,
  author    = {R{\"u}th, Michael},
  title     = {A Comprehensive Study of Dilute Magnetic Semiconductor Resonant Tunneling Diodes},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-71472},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {We investigate transport measurements on all II-VI semiconductor resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs). Being very versatile, the dilute magnetic semiconductor (DMS) system (Zn,Be,Mn,Cd)Se is a perfect testbed for various spintronic device designs, as it allows for separate control of electrical and magnetic properties. In contrast to the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As, doping ZnSe with Mn impurities does not alter the electrical properties of the semiconductor, as the magnetic dopant is isoelectric in the ZnSe host.},
  subject      = {Semimagnetischer Halbleiter},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Mark2011,
  author    = {Mark, Stefan},
  title     = {A Magnetic Semiconductor based Non-Volatile Memory and Logic Element},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-71223},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {For the realization of a programmable logic device, or indeed any nanoscale device, we need a reliable method to probe the magnetization direction of local domains. For this purpose we extend investigations on the previously discovered tunneling anisotropic magneto resistance effect (TAMR) by scaling the pillar size from 100 µm down to 260 nm. We start in chapter 4 with a theoretical description of the TAMR effect and show experimental data of miniaturized pillars in chapter 5. With such small TAMR probes we are able to locally sense the magnetization on the 100 nm scale. Sub-micron TAMR and anisotropic magneto resistance (AMR) measurements of sub-millimeter areas show that the behavior of macroscopic (Ga,Mn)As regions is not that of a true macrospin, but rather an ensemble average of the behavior of many nearly identical macrospins. This shows that the magnetic anisotropies of the local regions are consistent with the behavior extracted from macroscopic characterization. A fully electrically controllable read-write memory device out the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As is presented in chapter 6. The structure consists of four nanobars which are connected to a circular center region. The first part of the chapter describes the lithography realization of the device. We make use of the sub-micron TAMR probes to read-out the magnetization state of a 650 nm central disk. Four 200 nm wide nanobars are connected to the central disk and serve as source and drain of a spin-polarized current. With the spin-polarized current we are able to switch the magnetization of the central disk by means of current induced switching. Injecting polarized holes with a spin angular momentum into a magnetic region changes the magnetization direction of the region due to the p-d exchange interaction between localized Mn spins and itinerant holes. The magnetization of the central disk can be controlled fully electrically and it can serve as one bit memory element as part of a logic device. In chapter 7 we discuss the domain wall resistance in (Ga,Mn)As. At the transition from nanobars to central disk we are able to generate 90° and 180° domain walls and measure their resistance. The results presented from chapter 5 to 7 combined with the preexisting ultracompact (Ga,Mn)As-based memory cell of ref. [Papp 07c] are the building blocks needed to realize a fully functioning programmable logic device. The work of ref. [Papp 07c] makes use of lithographically engineered strain relaxation to produce a structure comprised of two nanobars with mutually orthogonal uniaxial easy axes, connected by a narrow constriction. Measurements showed that the resistance of the constriction depends on the relative orientation of the magnetization in the two bars. The programmable logic device consists of two central disks connected by a small constriction. The magnetization of the two central disks are used as the input bits and the constriction serves as the output during the logic operation. The concept is introduced in the end of chapter 6 and as an example for a logic operation an XOR gate is presented. The functionality of the programmable logic scheme presented here can be straightforwardly extended to produce multipurpose functional elements, where the given geometry can be used as various different computational elements depending on the number of input bits and the chosen electrical addressing. The realization of such a programmable logic device is shown in chapter 8, where we see that the constriction indeed can serve as a output of the logic operation because its resistance is dependent on the relative magnetization state of both disks. Contrary to ref. [Papp 07c], where the individual magnetic elements connected to the constriction only have two non-volatile magnetic states, each disk in our scheme connected to the constriction has four non-volatile magnetic states. Switching the magnetization of a central disk with an electrical current does not only change the TAMR read-out of the respective disk, it also changes the resistance of the constriction. The resistance polar plot of the constriction maps the relative magnetization states of the individual disks. The presented device design serves as an all-electrical, all-semiconductor logic element. It combines a memory cell and data processing in a single monolithic paradigm.},
  subject      = {Magnetischer Halbleiter},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Nguyen2015,
  author    = {Nguyen, Thanh Nam},
  title     = {A model system for carbohydrates interactions on single-crystalline Ru surfaces},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-111485},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {In this thesis, I present a model system for carbohydrate interactions with single-crystalline Ru surfaces. Geometric and electronic properties of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) on top of graphene on hexagonal Ru(0001), rectangular Ru(10-10) and vicinal Ru(1,1,-2,10) surfaces have been studied. First, the Fermi surfaces and band structures of the three Ru surfaces were investigated by high-resolution angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. The experimental data and theoretical calculations allow to derive detailed information about the momentum-resolved electronic structure. The results can be used as a reference to understand the chemical and catalytic properties of Ru surfaces. Second, graphene layers were prepared on the three different Ru surfaces. Using low-energy electron diffraction and scanning tunneling microscopy, it was found that graphene can be grown in well-ordered structures on all three surfaces, hexagonal Ru(0001), rectangular Ru(10-10) and vicinal Ru(1,1,-2,10), although they have different surface symmetries. Evidence for a strong interaction between graphene and Ru surfaces is a 1.3-1.7e V increase in the graphene pi-bands binding energy with respect to free-standing graphene sheets. This energy variation is due to the hybridization between the graphene pi bands and the Ru 4d electrons, while the lattice mismatch does not play an important role in the bonding between graphene and Ru surfaces. Finally, the geometric and electronic structures of CuPc on Ru(10-10), graphene/Ru(10-10), and graphene/Ru(0001) have been studied in detail. CuPc molecules can be grown well-ordered on Ru(10-10) but not on Ru(0001). The growth of CuPc on graphene/Ru(10-10) and Ru(0001) is dominated by the Moire pattern of graphene. CuPc molecules form well-ordered structures with rectangular unit cells on graphene/Ru(10-10) and Ru(0001). The distance of adjacent CuPc molecules is 1.5 and 1.3 nm on graphene/Ru(0001) and 1.54 and 1.37 nm on graphene/Ru(10-10). This indicates that the molecule-substrate interaction dominates over the intermolecular interaction for CuPc molecules on graphene/Ru(10-10) and graphene/Ru(0001).},
  subject      = {Ruthenium},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Herget2019,
  author    = {Herget, Verena},
  title     = {A novel approach for the calibration of the hadronic recoil for the measurement of the mass of the W boson with the ATLAS Experiment},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-17782},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-177828},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {The measurement of the mass of the \$W\$ boson is currently one of the most promising precision analyses of the Standard Model, that could ultimately reveal a hint for new physics. The mass of the \$W\$ boson is determined by comparing the \$W\$ boson, which cannot be reconstructed directly, to the \$Z\$ boson, where the full decay signature is available. With the help of Monte Carlo simulations one can extrapolate from the \$Z\$ boson to the \$W\$ boson. Technically speaking, the measurement of the \$W\$ boson mass is performed by comparing data taken by the ATLAS experiment to a set of calibrated Monte Carlo simulations, which reflect different mass hypotheses.\ A dedicated calibration of the reconstructed objects in the simulations is crucial for a high precision of the measured value. The comparison of simulated \$Z\$ boson events to reconstructed \$Z\$ boson candidates in data allows to derive event weights and scale factors for the calibration. This thesis presents a new approach to reweight the hadronic recoil in the simulations. The focus of the calibration is on the average hadronic activity visible in the mean of the scalar sum of the hadronic recoil \$\Sigma E_T\$ as a function of pileup. In contrast to the standard method, which directly reweights the scalar sum, the dependency to the transverse boson momentum is less strongly affected here. The \$\Sigma E_T\$ distribution is modeled first by means of its pileup dependency. Then, the remaining differences in the resolution of the vector sum of the hadronic recoil are scaled. This is done separately for the parallel and the pterpendicular component of the hadronic recoil with respect to the reconstructed boson. This calibration was developed for the dataset taken by the ATLAS experiment at a center of mass energy of \$8\,\textrm{TeV}\$ in 2012. In addition, the same reweighting procedure is applied to the recent dataset with a low pileup contribution, the \textit{lowMu} runs at \$5\,\textrm{TeV}\$ and at \$13\,\textrm{TeV}\$, taken by ATLAS in November 2017. The dedicated aspects of the reweighting procedure are presented in this thesis. It can be shown that this reweighting approach improves the agreement between data and the simulations effectively for all datasets. The uncertainties of this reweighting approach as well as the statistical errors are evaluated for a \$W\$ mass measurement by a template fit to pseudodata for the \textit{lowMu} dataset. A first estimate of these uncertainties is given here. For the pfoEM algorithm a statistical uncertainty of \$17\,\text{MeV}\$ for the \$5\,\textrm{TeV}\$ dataset and of \$18\,\text{MeV}\$ for the \$13\,\textrm{TeV}\$ are found for the \$W \rightarrow \mu \nu\$ analysis. The systematic uncertainty introduced by the resolution scaling has the largest effect, a value of \$15\,\text{MeV}\$ is estimated for the \$13\,\textrm{TeV}\$ dataset in the muon channel.},
  subject      = {Standardmodell <Elementarteilchenphysik>},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Tuchscherer2012,
  author    = {Tuchscherer, Philip},
  title     = {A Route to Optical Spectroscopy on the Nanoscale},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-72228},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {Time-resolved optical spectroscopy has become an important tool to investigate the dynamics of quantum mechanical processes in matter. In typical applications, a first "pump" pulse excites the system under investigation from the thermal equilibrium to an excited state, and a second variable time-delayed "probe" pulse then maps the dynamics of the excited system. Although advanced nonlinear techniques have been developed to investigate, e.g., coherent quantum effects, all of these techniques are limited in their spatial resolution. The laser focus diameter has a lower bound given by Abbe's diffraction limit, which is roughly half the optical excitation wavelength—corresponding to about 400nm in the presented experiments. In the time-resolved experiments that have been suggested so far, averaging over the sample volume within this focus cannot be avoided. In this thesis, two approaches were developed to overcome the diffraction limit in optical spectroscopy and to enable the investigation of coherent processes on the nanoscale. In the first approach, analytic solutions were found to calculate optimal polarizationshaped laser pulses that provide optical near-field pump-probe pulse sequences in the vicinity of a nanostructure. These near-field pulse sequences were designed to allow excitation of a quantum system at one specific position at a certain time and probing at a different position at a later time. In the second approach, the concept of coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy, which has had great impact on the investigation of coherent quantum effects in recent years, was combined with photoemission electron microscopy, which yields a spatial resolution well below the optical diffraction limit. Using the analytic solutions, optical near fields were investigated in terms of spectroscopic applications. Near fields that are excited with polarization-shaped femtosecond laser pulses in the vicinity of appropriate nanostructures feature two properties that are especially interesting in the view of spectroscopic applications: On the one hand, control of the spatial distribution of the optical fields is achieved on the order of nanometers. On the other hand, the temporal evolution of these fields can be adjusted on the order of femtoseconds. In this thesis, solutions were found to calculate the optimal polarizationshaped laser pulses that control the near field in a general manner. The main idea to achieve this deterministic control was to disentangle the spatial and temporal near-field control. First, the spatial distribution of the optical near field was controlled by assigning the correct state of polarization for each frequency within the polarization-shaped laser pulse independently. The remaining total phase—not employed for spatial control—was then used for temporal near-field compression, which, in experimental applications, would lead to an enhancement of the nonlinear signal at the respective location. In contrast to the use of optical near fields, where pump-probe sequences themselves are localized below the diffraction limit and the detection does not have to provide the spatial resolution, a different approach was suggested in this thesis to gain spectroscopic information on the nanoscale. The new method was termed "Coherent two-dimensional (2D) nanoscopy" and transfers the concept of "conventional" coherent 2D spectroscopy to photoemission electron microscopy. The pulse sequences used for the investigation of quantum systems in this method are still limited by diffraction. However, the new key concept is to detect locally generated photoelectrons instead of optical signals. This yields a spatial resolution that is well below the optical diffraction limit. In "conventional" 2D spectroscopy a triple-pulse sequence initiates a four wave mixing process that creates a coherence. In a quantum mechanical process, this coherence is converted into a population by emission of an electric field, which is measured in the experiment. Contrarily, in the developed 2D nanoscopy, four-wave mixing is initiated by a quadruple-pulse sequence, which leaves the quantum system in an electronic population. This electronic population carries coherent information about the investigated quantum system and can be mapped with a spatial resolution down to a few nanometers given by the spatial resolution of the photoemission electron microscope. Hence, 2D nanoscopy can be considered a generalization of time-resolved photoemission experiments. In the future, it may be of similar beneficial value for the field of photoemission research as "conventional" 2D spectroscopy has proven to be for optical spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. In a first experimental implementation of coherent 2D nanoscopy coherent processes on a corrugated silver surface were measured and unexpected long coherence lifetimes could be determined.},
  subject      = {Ultrakurzzeitspektroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Mueller2003,
  author    = {M{\"u}ller, Martin},
  title     = {Abstimmbare Halbleiterlaser und schmalbandige Laserarrays mit verteilter lateraler R{\"u}ckkopplung},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-16922},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2003},
  abstract  = {Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zwei verschiedene Typen von Halbleiterlasern mit verteilter R{\"u}ckkopplung (DFB-Laser) entwickelt. Die Laser basieren auf Rippenwellenleitern und verf{\"u}gen zus{\"a}tzlich {\"u}ber ein dazu senkrecht orientiertes Metallgitter. Der evaneszente Teil der im Rippenwellenleiter gef{\"u}hrten Lichtwelle {\"u}berlappt mit dem Gitter. Durch diese periodische Variation des effektiven Brechungsindex wird die verteilte R{\"u}ckkopplung gew{\"a}hrleistet, was eine longitudinal monomodige Laseremission zur Folge hat. Beiden Lasertypen ist gemeinsam, dass der Herstellungsprozess auf einem vom Materialsystem unabh{\"a}ngigen Konzept basiert. Diese Tatsache ist von besonderem Interesse, da so entsprechende Laser f{\"u}r unterschiedlichste Wellenl{\"a}ngenbereiche gefertigt werden k{\"o}nnen, ohne hierf{\"u}r neue Herstellungsverfahren zu entwickeln. Den ersten Schwerpunkt der Arbeit bilden Untersuchungen zu sog. abstimmbaren Lasern, deren Emissionswellenl{\"a}nge innerhalb eines relativ großen Bereichs quasikontinuierlich einstellbar ist. Der Abstimmmechanismus kann mit dem Vernier-Prinzip erkl{\"a}rt werden. Der Laser besteht hierbei aus zwei gekoppelten Segmenten, die jeweils {\"u}ber eine Reihe von Moden (Modenkamm) verf{\"u}gen. Der Abstand der Moden innerhalb eines Segments ist konstant, wohingegen die Modenabst{\"a}nde der beiden Segmente leicht unterschiedlich sind. Die Emissionswellenl{\"a}nge des Lasers ist bestimmt durch den {\"U}berlapp zweier Moden aus den beiden Segmenten, wobei die Modenk{\"a}mme so ausgelegt sind, dass gleichzeitig maximal ein Modenpaar {\"u}berlappt. Eine kleine relative Verschiebung der beiden Modenk{\"a}mme f{\"u}hrt zu einer vergleichsweise großen Verschiebung der Emissionswellenl{\"a}nge auf Grund des ver{\"a}nderten {\"U}berlapps. Die Modenk{\"a}mme wurden durch spezielle DFB-Gitter, sog. binary superimposed gratings (BSG), realisiert, die, anders als bei konventionellen DFB-Lasern, f{\"u}r mehrere Bragg-Wellenl{\"a}ngen konstruktive Interferenz zulassen und erstmalig bei DFB-Lasern eingesetzt wurden. BSGs zeichnen sich durch sehr gute optische Eigenschaften bei gleichzeitig einfacher Herstellung aus. Zum Abstimmen der Wellenl{\"a}nge wurde der Brechungsindex des Lasers gezielt durch den Injektionsstrom bzw. die Bauteiltemperatur ver{\"a}ndert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnten abstimmbare Laser auf unterschiedlichen Materialsystemen (InGaAs/GaAs, GaInNAs/GaAs, InGaAsP/InP) hergestellt werden. Der maximale diskrete Abstimmbereich betr{\"a}gt 38 nm bzw. 8,9 THz und ist durch die Breite des Verst{\"a}rkungsspektrums limitiert. Quasikontinuierlich konnte ein Abstimmbereich von 15 nm bzw. 3,9 THz erreicht werden. Die typische minimale Seitenmodenunterdr{\"u}ckung (SMSR) betr{\"a}gt 30 bis 35 dB. Durch Hinzuf{\"u}gen eines dritten Segments ohne Gitter konnte die Ausgangsleistung unabh{\"a}ngig von der Wellenl{\"a}nge konstant gehalten werden. Den zweiten Schwerpunkt der Arbeit bildet die Entwicklung von DFB-Laser-Arrays mit dem Ziel, longitudinal monomodige Laser mit hoher Ausgangsleistung zu erhalten. Die DFB-Laser-Arrays basieren auf dem oben beschriebenen Prinzip von DFB-Lasern mit lateralem Metallgitter und verf{\"u}gen {\"u}ber mehrere Rippenwellenleiter, die im lateralen Abstand von wenigen Mikrometern angeordnet sind. F{\"u}r große Abst{\"a}nde zwischen den einzelnen Lasern des Arrays (Elemente) emittieren diese, weitgehend unabh{\"a}ngig von einander, jeweils longitudinal monomodiges Licht (quasimonochromatische Emission). Die spektrale Breite betr{\"a}gt hierbei typischerweise 50 bis 70 GHz. F{\"u}r kleine Elementabst{\"a}nde koppeln die einzelnen Lichtwellen miteinander, was zu einer mit einem konventionellen DFB-Laser vergleichbaren Linienbreite f{\"u}hrt. W{\"a}hrend die ungekoppelten Arrays {\"u}ber ein gaußf{\"o}rmiges Fernfeld verf{\"u}gen, ergibt sich f{\"u}r die gekoppelten Arrays ein Interferenzmuster, das stark von verschiedenen Laserparametern (wie z. B. dem Elementabstand) abh{\"a}ngt. Bei InGaAs/GaAs basierenden Arrays (Wellenl{\"a}nge ca. 980 nm) ergibt sich f{\"u}r DFB-Laser-Arrays mit vier Elementen eine Ausgangsleistung von ca. 200 mW pro Facette, die durch die W{\"a}rmeabfuhr begrenzt wird. Trotz der starken thermischen Limitierung (die Laser waren nicht aufgebaut) konnte die 3,5-fache Ausgangsleistung eines Referenzlasers erzielt werden. Bei InGaSb/GaSb basierenden Arrays mit vier Elementen (Wellenl{\"a}nge ca. 2,0 µm) konnte eine Ausgangsleistung von ca. 30 mW pro Facette erreicht werden, was dem 3,3-fachen eines Referenzlasers entspricht. Die Verwendung von DFB-Laser-Arrays f{\"u}hrt folglich zu einer signifikanten Leistungssteigerung, die sich durch geeignete Maßnahmen (Facettenverg{\"u}tung, Montage, Skalierung) noch weiter erh{\"o}hen ließe.},
  subject      = {DFB-Laser},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Sauer2014,
  author    = {Sauer, Christoph},
  title     = {Accessing molecule-metal and hetero-molecular interfaces with direct and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-107928},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {This thesis consists of two parts of original experimental work, its evaluation, and in- terpretation. Its final goal is to investigate dynamical charge transfer (CT) at a hetero- molecular interface with resonant photoelectron spectroscopy (RPES). In order to achieve this goal preliminary studies have been necessary. First two hetero-molecular inter- faces that exhibit adequate structural properties as well as an appropriate photoelec- tron spectroscopy (PES) spectrum of the valence regime have been identified. The de- sired CT analysis with RPES of these hetero-molecular systems is then conducted on the basis of the knowledge gained by previous RPES studies of homo-molecular sys- tems. The characterization of hetero-molecular films on single crystal Ag surfaces in the first part of this thesis is performed with high resolution core level PES and valence PES. The reproduction of the core level PES data with reference spectra of homo-molecular films allows me to determine which molecule is in direct contact to the Ag surface and which one is situated in higher layers (not the first one). Due to the direct correspon- dence of core level and valence PES the assignment of features in the spectra of the latter technique can be achieved with the identification of the contributions extracted from the evaluation of the data of the former technique. It is found that the systems PTCDA on one monolayer (ML) of SnPc on Ag(111) and CuPc/1 ML PTCDA/Ag(111) are stable at 300 K which means that no significant layer exchange occurs for these systems. In contrast a vertical exchange of CuPc and PTCDA molecules is observed for PTCDA de- posited on top of 1 ML CuPc/Ag(111). Up to a coverage of approximately 0.5 ML of PTCDA molecules these diffuse into the first layer, replace CuPc molecules, and con- sequently force them into higher layers. Above a coverage of approximately 0.5 ML of PTCDA molecules these are also found in higher layers. The search for a promising system for the intended RPES study then leads to an investigation of hetero-molecular films with a combination of F4TCNQ and PTCDA molecules on Ag(110) within the same approach. Depositing F4TCNQ molecules onto a 1 ML PTCDA/Ag(110) film in the herringbone phase at 300 K results in an instable hetero-organic system which un- dergoes a layer exchange. Hereby PTCDA molecules in the first layer are replaced by F4TCNQ molecules similar to the behavior of the system PTCDA/1 ML CuPc/Ag(111). Switching the order of the preparation steps leads to a stable film of PTCDA/1.0 ML F4TCNQ/Ag(110) at 300 K. Among the stable hetero-molecular films only the system CuPc/1 ML PTCDA/Ag(111) exhibits the required wetting growth of the first two layers at 300 K and a valence PES spectrum with energetically separable molecular orbital signals in the same intensity range. Thus this system is identified to be appropriate for a detailed analysis with RPES. The unexpected findings of vertical exchanges in the hetero-molecular films at 300 K motivate a study of the behavior at elevated temperatures for all systems investigated before. Therein it is revealed that annealing 1.5 ML SnPc/1 ML PTCDA/Ag(111) and 1.0 ML PTCDA/1 ML SnPc/Ag(111) to a temperature above the desorption temperature of molecules not in direct contact to the Ag(111) surface results in a 1 ML SnPc/Ag(111) film in both cases. Hence at elevated temperatures (approximately above 420 K) SnPc molecules replace PTCDA molecules in the first layer on Ag(111). At higher temper- atures (approximately above 470 K) PTCDA molecules and SnPc molecules situated above the first layer then desorb from the 1 ML SnPc/Ag(111) sample. Annealing all hetero-molecular films with CuPc and PTCDA molecules on Ag(111) to 570 K leads to a sample with CuPc and PTCDA molecules in the first and only layer. Depending on the initial CuPc coverage different ratios of both molecules are obtained. With a CuPc coverage of exactly 1 ML, or above, films with PTCDA coverages of approxi- mately 0.1-0.2 ML are produced. So at elevated temperatures CuPc molecules replace PTCDA molecules in the first layer of the system CuPc/1 ML PTCDA/Ag(111). Anal- ogously the layer exchange at 300 K for the system PTCDA/1 ML CuPc/Ag(111) is reversed at elevated temperatures. In the case of SnPc and CuPc coverages below 1 ML annealing vertical hetero-molecular systems with PTCDA on Ag(111) up to 570 K re- sults in a single layer of mixed hetero-molecular films with lateral long range order. In this way the system CuPc + PTCDA/Ag(111) is prepared and then characterized as a proper system for a detailed analysis with RPES. Additional annealing experiments of hetero-organic films consisting of F4TCNQ and PTCDA molecules on Ag(110) with an F4TCNQ coverage of 1.0 ML (and above) end in a submonolayer (sub-ML) film of F4TCNQ/Ag(110) that exhibits a contribution of amorphous carbon. Consequently, it can be concluded that at elevated temperatures part of the F4TCNQ molecules decom- pose. In the second part of this thesis homo-molecular multilayer samples and (sub-)ML films on single crystalline metal surfaces are investigated with RPES in order to enable the final RPES study of vertical and lateral hetero-molecular interface systems. First a pho- ton energy (hν) dependent intensity variation of (groups of) molecular orbital signals of exemplary multilayer films (NTCDA and coronene) is studied and explained on the basis of the local character of the electronic transitions in near edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy in combination with the real space probability den- sity of the contributing molecular orbitals. This simple approach is found to be able to correctly describe relative intensity variations by orders of magnitude while it fails for hν dependent relative intensity changes in the same order of magnitude. After that the hν dependent line-shape evolution of an energetically separated molecular orbital signal of a CuPc multilayer is discussed in relation to small molecules in the gas phase and explained with an effect of electron vibration coupling. Through a comparison of the hν dependent line-shape evolution of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of a CuPc with a SnPc multilayer the molecule specific character of this effect is identified. Then the same effect with either two (or more) electronic transitions or multiple coupling vibrational modes is observed for a coronene multilayer. Thereafter the influence of the adsorption on metal surfaces on this effect is studied and discussed with special emphasis on a possible contribution by features which are related to dynamical interface CT. For a sub-ML of SnPc/Au(111) no variation with respect to a SnPc multilayer film is detected while for a sub-ML of CuPc/Au(111) less intensity is distributed into the high binding energy (EB) part of the HOMO signal with respect to the corresponding multilayer film. In the RPES data of a sub-ML of coronene/Ag(111) a resonance specific variation of the hν dependent line-shape evolution of the HOMO signal is found by the revelation of a change of this effect with respect to the coronene multilayer data in only one of the two NEXAFS resonances. All these findings are consistently explained within one effect and a common set of parameters, namely all quantities that characterize the potential energy surfaces involved in the RPES process. Through that an alternative explanation that re- lies on dynamical CT can be excluded which influences the following CT analysis with RPES. Three criteria for such an analysis of dynamical interface CT with RPES are identified. In the system coronene on Ag(111) a low EB feature is related to metal-molecule inter- face CT through the assignment of a particular final state and hence named CT state. In the EB region of the frontier molecular orbital signals of the molecule-metal inter- face systems with a signal from the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) in direct valence PES a broad line-shape is measured in RPES. This finding is related to interface CT by a possible explanation that emerges through the comparison to the line- shape of the CT state. The constant kinetic energy (EK ) features detected for several molecule-metal interfaces constitute the third criterion for a CT analysis with RPES. For the molecule-metal interface systems without a LUMO signal in direct valence PES the energy of these features can be calculated with the assignment of the responsible decay channel in combination with explicitly given simplifying assumptions. Through that the involvement of metal-molecule interface CT in the generation of these constant EK fea- tures is demonstrated. The RPES data of the lateral and the vertical hetero-molecular interface, identified in the first part, is then scanned for these three CT criteria. Thereby neither for the lateral hetero-molecular system CuPc + PTCDA/Ag(111) nor for the verti- cal hetero-molecular system CuPc/1 ML PTCDA/Ag(111) dynamical hetero-molecular interface CT can be confirmed. In the former system the molecule-metal interface in- teraction is found to dominate the physics of the system in RPES while in the latter system no hints for a significant hybridization at the CuPc-PTCDA interface can be revealed},
  subject      = {Organisches Molek{\"u}l},
  language  = {en}
}