@phdthesis{Hauschild2015,
  author    = {Hauschild, Dirk},
  title     = {Electron and soft x-ray spectroscopy of indium sulfide buffer layers and the interfaces in Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2-based thin-film solar cells},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-126766},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {In this thesis, thin-film solar cells on the basis of Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 (CIGSSe) were investigated. Until today, most high efficient CIGSSe-based solar cells use a toxic and wetchemical deposited CdS buffer layer, which doesn't allow a dry inline production. However, a promising and well-performing alternative buffer layer, namely indium sulfide, has been found which doesn't comprise these disadvantages. In order to shed light on these well-performing devices, the surfaces and in particular the interfaces which play a major role for the charge carrier transport are investigated in the framework of this thesis. Both, the chemical and electronic properties of the solar cells' interfaces were characterized. In case of the physical vapor deposition of an InxSy-based buffer layer, the cleaning step of the CdS chemical-bath deposition is not present and thus changes of the absorber surface have to be taken into account. Therefore, adsorbate formation, oxidation, and segregation of absorber elements in dependence of the storing temperature and the humidity are investigated in the first part of this thesis. The efficiencies of CIGSSe-based solar cells with an InxSy buffer layer depend on the nominal indium concentration x and display a maximum for x = 42 \%. In this thesis, InxSy samples with a nominal indium concentration of 40.2\% ≤ x ≤ 43.2\% were investigated by surface-sensitive and surface-near bulk-sensitive techniques, namely with photoemission spectroscopy (PES) and x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES). The surfaces of the films were found to be sulfur-poor and indium-rich in comparison with stoichiometric In2S3. Moreover, a direct determination of the band alignment at the InxSy/CISSe interface in dependence of the nominal indium concentration x was conducted with the help of PES and inverse PES (IPES) and a flat band alignment was found for x = 42 \%. In order to study the impact of a heat treatment as it occurs during subsequent cell process steps, the indium sulfide-buffered absorbers were annealed for 30 minutes under UHV conditions at 200 °C after the initial data set was taken. Besides a reported enhanced solar cell performance, a significant copper diffusion from the absorber into the buffer layer takes place due to the thermal treatment. Accordingly, the impact of the copper diffusion on the hidden InxSy/CISSe interface was discussed and for x = 40.2\% a significant cliff (downwards step in the conduction band) is observed. For increasing x, the alignment in the conduction band turns into a small upwards step (spike) for the region 41\% ≤ x ≤ 43.2\%. This explains the optimal solar cell performance for this indium contents. In a further step, the sodium-doped indium sulfide buffer which leads to significantly higher efficient solar cells was investigated. It was demonstrated by PES/IPES that the enhanced performance can be ascribed to a significant larger surface band gap in comparison with undoped InxSy. The occurring spike in the Na:InxSy/CISSe band alignment gets reduced due to a Se diffusion induced by the thermal treatment. Furthermore, after the thermal treatment the sodium doped indium sulfide layer experiences a copper diffusion which is reduced by more than a factor of two compared to pure InxSy. Next, the interface between the Na:InxSy buffer layer and the i-ZnO (i = intrinsic, non-deliberately doped), as a part of the transparent front contact was analyzed. The i-ZnO/Na:InxSy interface shows significant interdiffusion, leading to the formation of, e.g., ZnS and hence to a reduction of the nominal cliff in the conduction band alignment. In the last part of this thesis, the well-established surface-sensitive reflective electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS) was utilized to study the CIGSSe absorber, the InxSy buffer, and annealed InxSy buffer surfaces. By fitting the characteristic inelastic scattering cross sections λK(E) with Drude-Lindhard oscillators the dielectric function was identified. The determined dielectric functions are in good agreement with values from bulk-sensitive optical measurements on indium sulfide layers. In contrast, for the chalcopyrite-based absorber significant differences appear. In particular, a substantial larger surface band gap of the CIGSSe surface of E^Ex_Gap = (1.4±0.2) eV in comparison with bulk values is determined. This provides for the first time an independent verification of earlier PES/IPES results. Finally, the electrons' inelastic mean free paths l for the three investigated surfaces are compared for different primary energies with theoretical values and the universal curve.},
  subject      = {Photoelektronenspektroskopie},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Weinhardt2005,
  author    = {Weinhardt, Lothar},
  title     = {Elektronische und chemische Eigenschaften von Grenzfl{\"a}chen und Oberfl{\"a}chen in optimierten Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 D{\"u}nnschichtsolarzellen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-16234},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2005},
  abstract  = {In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen an D{\"u}nnschichtsolarzellen auf der Basis von Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2, der heute vielversprechendsten D{\"u}nnschichttechnologie, durchgef{\"u}hrt. F{\"u}r eine weitere Optimierung der Zellen ist ein detailliertes Verst{\"a}ndnis ihrer chemischen, elektronischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften notwendig. Insbesondere die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Eigenschaften an den Grenzfl{\"a}chen der Zelle sind aufgrund ihrer zentralen Rolle f{\"u}r den Ladungstr{\"a}gertransport von besonderem Interesse. Bei den vorliegenden Untersuchungen kamen verschiedene Spektroskopien zum Einsatz. Mit einer Kombination von Photoelektronenspektroskopie und Inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie war es m{\"o}glich, sowohl eine direkte Bestimmung der Valenz- und Leitungsbandanpassungen an den untersuchten Grenzfl{\"a}chen durchzuf{\"u}hren als auch Oberfl{\"a}chenbandl{\"u}cken zu bestimmen. Die Messungen wurden durch die volumenempfindliche R{\"o}ntgenemissionsspektroskopie ideal erg{\"a}nzt, die - wie diese Arbeit zeigt - zusammen mit der Photoelektronenspektroskopie besonders n{\"u}tzlich bei der Analyse des Durchmischungsverhaltens an Grenzfl{\"a}chen oder auch des Einflusses chemischer Behandlungen auf die chemischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften von Oberfl{\"a}chen ist. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurden vier Grenzfl{\"a}chen in Proben auf der Basis des Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2-Absorbers von Shell Solar (M{\"u}nchen) untersucht. Es konnte dabei zun{\"a}chst das Durchmischungsverhalten an der CdS/CuIn(S,Se)2-Grenzfl{\"a}che in Abh{\"a}ngigkeit des S-Gehaltes an der Absorberoberfl{\"a}che untersucht werden. Bei Messungen an der i-ZnO/CdS-Grenzfl{\"a}che wurde ein flacher Leitungsbandverlauf gefunden, zudem konnte eine Durchmischung an dieser Grenzfl{\"a}che ausgeschlossen werden. Eine besondere Herausforderung stellten die Messungen an der Grenzfl{\"a}che des Absorbers zum Molybd{\"a}nr{\"u}ckkontakt dar, da diese Grenzfl{\"a}che nach ihrem Entstehen unweigerlich unter der etwa 1-2 um dicken Absorberschicht begraben liegt. Durch geeignetes Abspalten des Absorbers vom R{\"u}ckkontakt gelang es, diese Grenzfl{\"a}che freizulegen und zu spektroskopieren. Die Untersuchungen zur Vorbehandlung des Shell-Absorbers mit einer ammoniakalischen Cd-L{\"o}sung dienten dem Verst{\"a}ndnis der positiven Einfl{\"u}sse dieser Behandlung auf den Zellwirkungsgrad. Dabei wurde neben verschiedenen Reinigungswirkungen auf den Absorber als wichtigster Befund die Bildung einer sehr d{\"u}nnen CdS-Schicht und, f{\"u}r hohe Cd-Konzentrationen, einer zus{\"a}tzlichen Cd(OH)2-Schicht auf der Absorberoberfl{\"a}che nachgewiesen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse {\"u}ber die Cd-Behandlung haben eine besondere Bedeutung f{\"u}r die Untersuchung der Grenzfl{\"a}che des Absorbers und einer mit ILGAR ("Ion Layer Gas Reaction") hergestellten Zn(O,OH)-Pufferschicht. An dieser Grenzfl{\"a}che wurde die Bandanpassung mit und ohne vorherige Cd-Behandlung des Absorbers vermessen. Wird die Bandanpassung ohne Vorbehandlung noch durch Adsorbate auf dem Absorber dominiert, wobei man ein "Cliff" im Leitungsband findet, so ist der Leitungsbandverlauf f{\"u}r die Grenzfl{\"a}che mit Cd-behandeltem Absorber flach, was im Einklang mit den sehr guten Wirkungsgraden steht, die mit solchen Zellen erreicht werden. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden Messungen an D{\"u}nnschichtsolarzellen mit selenfreiem Cu(In,Ga)S2 Absorber diskutiert. Ein Problem des Cu(In,Ga)S2-Systems besteht heute noch darin, daß die offene Klemmenspannung geringer ausf{\"a}llt, als dies aufgrund der im Vergleich zu CuInSe2 gr{\"o}ßeren Bandl{\"u}cke zu erwarten w{\"a}re. Modelle, die dies auf eine ung{\"u}nstige Bandanpassung an der CdS/Cu(In,Ga)S2-Grenzfl{\"a}che zur{\"u}ckf{\"u}hren, konnten in dieser Arbeit durch die Messung der Leitungsbandanpassung, die ein deutlich "Cliff"-artiges Verhalte aufweist, best{\"a}tigt werden. Untersuchungen des Einflusses unterschiedlicher Oberfl{\"a}chenzusammensetzungen auf die chemischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften der Cu(In,Ga)Se2-Absorberoberfl{\"a}che ergaben, wie sich die Bandl{\"u}cke des Absorbers mit wachsender Kupferverarmung vergr{\"o}ßert und gleichzeitig die Bandverbiegung zunimmt. Im letzten, rein grundlagenorientierten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden R{\"o}ntgenabsorptions- und resonante R{\"o}ntgenemissionsmessungen an CdS und ZnS im Vergleich zu von A. Fleszar berechneten theoretischen Spektren, die unter Ber{\"u}cksichtigung der {\"U}bergangsmatrixelemente aus einer LDA-Bandstruktur berechnet wurden, diskutiert. Es konnten dabei sowohl Anregungen in exzitonische Zust{\"a}nde als auch koh{\"a}rente Emission mit Informationen {\"u}ber die Bandstruktur gefunden werden. Auch war es m{\"o}glich, die Lebensdauern verschiedener Valenzlochzust{\"a}nde zu bestimmen. Es zeigt sich, daß so die Bestimmung einer unteren Grenze f{\"u}r die Bandl{\"u}cke m{\"o}glich ist, f{\"u}r eine genaue Bestimmung bei den untersuchten Verbindungen jedoch ein Vergleich mit theoretischen Berechnungen notwendig ist.},
  subject      = {D{\"u}nnschichtsolarzelle},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{Mayer2023,
  author    = {Mayer, Julian Benedikt},
  title     = {Topological phases in Luttinger materials},
  doi       = {10.25972/OPUS-32736},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:20-opus-327368},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t W{\"u}rzburg},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {The hunt for topological materials is one of the main topics of recent research in condensed matter physics. We analyze the 4-band Luttinger model, which considers the total angular momentum \(j = 3/2\) hole states of many semiconductors. Our analysis shows that this model hosts a wide array of topological phases and allows analytical calculations of the related topological surface states. The existence of these surface states is highly desired due to their strong protection against perturbations. In the first part of the thesis, we predict the existence of either one or two two-dimensional (2D) surface states of topological origin in the three-dimensional (3D) quadratic-node semimetal phase of the Luttinger model, called the Luttinger semimetal phase. We associate the origin of these states with the inverted order of s and p-orbital states in the band structure and approximate chiral symmetry around the node. Hence, our findings are essential for many materials, including HgTe, α-Sn, and iridate compounds. Such materials are often modified with strain engineering by growing the crystal on a substrate with a different lattice constant, which adds a deformation potential to the electrons. While tensile strain is often used to drive such materials into a gapped topological insulator regime, we apply compressive strain to induce a topological semimetal regime. Here, we differentiate between Dirac and Weyl semimetals based on inversion and time-reversal symmetry being simultaneously present or not. One major part of this thesis is the theoretical study of the evolution of the Luttinger semimetal surface states in these topological semimetal phases. The relative strength of the compressive strain and typical bulk inversion asymmetry (BIA) terms allow the definition of a symmetry hierarchy in the system. The cubic symmetric \(O_h\) Luttinger model is the highest symmetry low-energy parent model. Since the BIA terms in the Weyl semimetal phase are small in most materials, we find a narrow energy and momentum range around the Weyl points where the surface states form Fermi arcs between two Weyl nodes with opposite chirality. Consequently, we see 2D momentum planes between the Weyl points, which can be considered as effective 2D Chern insulators with chiral edge states connecting the valence and conduction band in the bulk gap. Exceeding the range of the BIA terms, the compressive strain becomes dominating, and the system behaves like a Dirac semimetal with two doubly degenerate linear Dirac nodes in the band structure. For energies larger than the compressive strain strength, the quadratic terms in the Luttinger model dominate and surface band structure is indistinguishable from an unperturbed Luttinger semimetal. To conclude this symmetry hierarchy, we analyze the limit of the Luttinger model when the remote \(j = 1/2\) electron states show a considerable hybridization with the \(j = 3/2\) hole states around the Fermi level. Here, the Luttinger model is not valid anymore and one needs to consider more complicated models, like the 6-band Kane Hamiltonian. In the second part of this thesis, we analyze theoretically two different setups for s-wave superconductivity proximitized \(j = 3/2\) particles in Luttinger materials under a magnetic field. First, we explore a one-dimensional wire setup, where the intrinsic BIA of inversion asymmetric crystals opens a topological gap in the bulk states. In contrast to wires, modeled by a quadratic dispersion with Rashba or Dresselhaus spin-orbit coupling, we find two topological phase transitions due to the different effects of magnetic fields to \(|j_z| = 3/2\) heavy-hole (HH) and \(|j_z| = 1/2\) light-hole (LH) states. Second, we discuss a two-dimensional Josephson junction setup, where we find Andreev-bound states inside the superconducting gap. Here, the intrinsic spin-orbit coupling of the Luttinger model is sufficient to open a topological gap even in the presence of inversion symmetry. This originates from the hybridization of the light and heavy-hole bands in combination with the superconducting pairing. Consequently, both setups can form Majorana-bound states at the boundaries of the system. The existence of these states are highly relevant in the scientific community due to their nonabelian braiding statistics and stability against decoherence, making them a prime candidate for the realization of topological quantum computation. Majorana-bound states form at zero energy and are protected by the topological gap. We predict that our findings of the topological superconductor phase of the Luttinger model are valid for both semimetal and metal phases. Hence, our study is additionally relevant for metallic systems, like p-doped GaAs. This opens a new avenue for the search for topological superconductivity.},
  language  = {en}
}