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Virtual humans (VHs) hold immense potential for collaboration in social virtual reality (VR). As VR technology advances, it's vital to assess the psychological effects on VH trust and user privacy to build meaningful social interactions in VR. In social VR, users must be able to trust the VHs they interact with as they navigate through socio-cultural activities. The evaluation of trustworthiness in VHs profoundly impacts interaction quality and user willingness to engage. Conversely, untrustworthy VHs can harm user experiences, privacy, and VR engagement. To address this, we conducted immersive VR studies, exploring how psychological factors influence user's VH trust evaluation under various psychological conditions. This research is pivotal for developing strategies to enhance user privacy, establish secure VR environments, and create a foundation of trust that supports immersive socio-cultural experiences in VR.
To date, there are no established interpersonal trust measurement tools specifically for VHs in VR. In study 1 (the familiarity study) of the current thesis the VR-adjusted version of the social conditioned place preference paradigm (SCPP) by Kiser et al., (2022) was identified as a potential trust measurement tool. We tested whether the familiarity of a VH influenced trust as measured with the SCPP paradigm and other self-defined outcome measures, in a Computer Augmented Virtual Environment (CAVE). The CAVE is a VR system that combines immersive VR with real-world elements. It consists of a room-sized space where the walls are used as projection screens to display virtual scenes and objects. In this within - subject design (n = 20), half of the participants were familiarized with one VH and tasked to explore and interact in a realistic looking virtual art museum environment. The participant’s evaluation of the VH’s trustworthiness was measured as well as their subsequent trust behaviours. Results revealed no significant differences in the evaluation of the VH’s trustworthiness nor any behavioural differences between conditions. The findings of the impact of a VH’s familiarity on trust is inconclusive due to the major limitations of the paradigm. We concluded that the SCPP paradigm needs further validation and the proposed proxies of trust need to be re-evaluated. The findings were considered in the following study.
The virtual maze paradigm design of Hale, (2018) was identified as a potential trust measurement tool, however several limitations are associated with its use to measure trust in VR. In study 2 (a validation study), improvements were made to the virtual maze paradigm of Hale, (2018) and a variant of this paradigm was implemented. We conducted a validation study with 70 participants in a between-subject design with VH trustworthiness as the between-subject factor. Participants wore a head-mounted display (HMD), to deliver an immersive VR experience. In our version of the virtual maze, it was the task of the users (the trustors) to navigate through a maze in VR, where they could interact with a VH (the trustee). They could choose to ask for advice and follow the advice from the VH if they wanted to. The number of times participants asked and followed advice and the time it took to respond to the given advice served as behavioural proxies/measures of trust. The two conditions (trustworthy vs. untrustworthy) did not differ in the content of the advice but in the appearance, tone of voice and engagement of the trustees (allegedly an avatar controlled by other participants). Results indicated that the experimental manipulation was successful, as participants rated the VH as more trustworthy in the trustworthy condition compared with the VH in the untrustworthy condition. Importantly, this manipulation affected the trust behaviour of participants, who, in the trustworthy condition, asked for advice and followed advice more often, indicating that the paradigm is sensitive to differences in VH’s trustworthiness. Thus, our paradigm can be used to measure differences in interpersonal trust towards VHs and may serve as a valuable research tool for researchers who study trust in VR. Therefore, study 2 fills the gap in the literature, for an interpersonal trust measurement tool specifically for VHs in VR.
Two experimental studies, with a sample size of 50 participants each, utilized the virtual maze paradigm where participants entered 12 rooms under different conditions. We examined the influence of cognitive load (CL) on trust towards VH in VR in study 3 (Cognitive load study), and the influence of emotional affect (Emotional affect study) on trust towards VH in VR in study 4 (EA study). In both studies, we assessed participant’s evaluation of a VH’s trustworthiness, along with three behavioural indicators of trust in the maze task: 1) frequency of advice asked, 2) frequency of advice followed, and 3) the time taken by participants to execute the received advice. In study 3, the CL was manipulated with the auditory 1-back task in the high cognitive load condition (HCL). In study 4, the Autobiographical Emotional Memory Task (AEMT) was used to manipulate the EA of participants in the negative emotional affect (NEA) condition. As an additional manipulation, while participants were immersed in VR, they were exposed to 12 negative pictures and sounds that was presented simultaneously to strengthen the initial manipulation. The manipulation of the within-subject factors (CL and EA) was successful in both studies, as significant differences between conditions were observed in both studies (higher CL in the HCL condition and a more negative EA in the NEA condition). However, only CL influenced participant’s evaluation of the VH’s trustworthiness. The VH were evaluated as significantly more trustworthy after the HCL condition. Despite the difference in trust evaluation, there was no difference in advice asking or following. Participants in study 4 asked and followed advice due to their trust in the VH and asked and followed advice equally often in both conditions. Importantly, significant differences were observed in the participants response times in both studies. In study 3 during the HCL condition participants followed advice quicker. The order in which the conditions were presented influenced the experience of CL. Participants experienced higher levels of CL and responded to advice significantly faster when low cognitive load (LCL) was presented as the first condition compared with LCL as the second condition. In study 4 participants in the NEA condition followed advice slower similar to the findings of study 3. The order in which the conditions were presented had a significant effect on the EA. Participants asked and followed advice less when the NEA condition was presented first compared with when it is presented second. Possible explanations for the findings are discussed in the thesis.
Overall, this thesis offers a novel tool for trust measurement (the virtual maze paradigm) and contributes to understanding the role of psychological factors in trust towards virtual humans in virtual reality.
Immersive Technologien, wie Augmented und Virtual Reality, können bestehende Geschäftsmodelle entweder verbessern oder gefährden. Jedoch kann sich das förderliche Potential nur entfalten, wenn die Anwender:innen die Technologien akzeptieren und letztendlich auch nutzen. In dieser Arbeit wird beschrieben, was Akzeptanz ist und welche Einflussgrößen (Faktoren) für die Akzeptanz von Virtual Reality besonders relevant sind. Anschließend ist, basierend auf der diskutierten Fachliteratur, ein neuartiges, holistisches Akzeptanzmodell für Virtual Reality entworfen und mit drei Studien überprüft worden.
In der ersten Studie wurden 129 Personen gebeten entweder in Augmented oder Virtual Reality ein Schulungsszenario oder ein Mini-Spiel auszuprobieren (2x2-Design). In beiden Anwendungen sollten Flaschen von einem virtuellen Fließband entfernt werden. Im Fokus der Untersuchung stand die Immersion, die Nützlichkeit, das empfundene Vergnügen (Hedonismus) und die Zufriedenheit. Die Ergebnisse ergaben zum einen, dass sich die Immersion zwischen Augmented und Virtual Reality unterscheidet, und zum anderen, dass das empfundene Vergnügen und die Nützlichkeit signifikante Prädiktoren für die Zufriedenheit darstellen. An der zweiten Studie nahmen 62 Personen teil. Sie wurden gebeten das Schulungsszenario erneut zu absolvieren, wobei dieses mit auditiven Inhalten und animierten Figuren angereicht wurde, sowie über eine etwas bessere Grafikqualität verfügte. Die Daten wurden mit den Virtual Reality Szenarien aus der ersten Studie verglichen, um den Einfluss der Präsenz auf den Hedonismus zu untersuchen. Obwohl kein relevanter Unterschied zwischen den Gruppen festgestellt wurde, konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Präsenz Hedonismus signifikant vorhersagt. An der dritten Studie beteiligten sich insgesamt 35 Personen. Untersuchungsgegenstand der Studie war die virtuelle Darstellung der eigenen Person in der virtuellen Realität (Verkörperung) und dessen Einfluss auf den Hedonismus. Die Versuchspersonen wurden gebeten das Schulungsszenario erneut zu durch-laufen, wobei sie diesmal das Eingabegerät (Controller) der Visieranzeige (head-mounted display) zur Steuerung benutzen. In der ersten Studie erfolgte die Bedienung über eine Gestensteuerung. Die Analyse dieser Manipulation offenbarte keinerlei Auswirkungen auf die Verkörperung. Allerdings stellte die Verkörperung einen signifikanten Prädiktor für den Hedonismus dar.
Im Anschluss an die Studien ist das Modell mit den Daten aus den Virtual Reality Gruppen der ersten Studie beurteilt worden, wobei es sich weitgehend bestätigt hat. Abschließend werden die Befunde in Bezug auf die Fachliteratur eingeordnet, mögliche Ursachen für die Ergebnisse diskutiert und weitere Forschungsbedarfe aufgezeigt.
This thesis consists of three studies investigating the influence media literacy has on political variables, cognitive variables, and learning. Adolescents from 13 years of age and young adults are included in the studies. This thesis is divided into three chapters. Study I and II are one comprehensive study, but will be presented separately for better readability. Chapter I provides the reader with background knowledge for the original studies presented in chapter II includes information about media use, different conceptualizations of media literacy and its development over the lifetime, as well as media literacy’s impact on cognitive and political variables. Additionally, current literature on the comparison of the learning outcomes of different kinds of texts (written, auditory, and audiovisual) is presented, with a differentiation between text-based information and inferences. In chapter II, the original studies are placed in the current state of research and presented in detail. In chapter III, a critical discussion of the studies is conducted, and a general model of the influence media literacy has on the investigated cognitive and political factors is presented, followed by a conclusion of the research.
The theoretical foundation of this thesis is three models of media literacy proposed by Groeben (2002, 2004), Hobbs (1997), and Potter (1998, 2016). These three models are similar in that they define media literacy as a multifactorial construct with skills that develop further in the course of life. Their ideas are integrated and developed further, leading to our own model of media literacy. It encompasses five scales: media sign literacy, distinction between reality and fiction, knowledge of media law, knowledge of media effects, and production skills. Thereupon, the assessment tool Würzburg Media Literacy Test (WMK; Würzburger Medienkompetenztest) is designed.
There is evidence that media use and media literacy influence socio-political factors. Young adults name the internet as the main source of information on political topics (see Pasek et al., 2006), and knowledge demonstrably fosters political participation (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996). However, the kind of participation activity regarded is important (Quintelier & Vissers, 2008), as sometimes real-life participation is supplemented by online activities (Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2002). Media literacy is the key to evaluating the quality of information from media. Whether or not a direct link between media literacy and political interest exists has, as far as I know, not yet been investigated. Several studies have shown that precursors and subcomponents of media literacy have the capacity to influence cognitive variables. For instance, children with higher media sign literacy possess better reading proficiency (Nieding et al., 2017) and are better at collecting information and drawing inferences from hypermedia and films (Diergarten et al., 2017) as compared to children with low literacy. These precursors and subcomponents are more efficient in processing medial sign systems, reducing cognitive load, and consequently, liberating cognitive capacity for other mental tasks (Sweller, 1988). Paino and Renzulli (2012) showed that highly computer-proficient adolescents exhibit better mathematics and reading abilities. Different types of media influence the learning process differently, and the learning process can be enhanced by combining these different types of media, if the material is prepared according to the research findings and Mayer’s (2002) cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Similarly, a reduction in cognitive load takes place and more resources can be invested in the learning process itself (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Sweller, 1988). It is not easy to answer the question of whether one medium is superior for learning to another. Generally, adults learn best from written texts (e.g., Byrne & Curtis, 2000), and audiovisual and auditory texts are comparable (e.g., Hayes et al., 1986); however, there is little research regarding the comparison of the latter two.
Study I examined whether media literacy has a positive impact on interest in politics and the political self-concept. A sample of 101 13-to 20-year-olds was drawn. The control variables were intelligence, socio-economic status (SES), openness to experiences, perspective-taking, age, and sex. Additionally, an evaluation of the WMK was conducted, which indicated good construct validity and excellent overall reliability. Media literacy was positively associated with interest in politics, political self-concept, and perspective-taking but not with openness. In hierarchical regressions and path analysis, a direct influence of media literacy and openness on interest in politics could be found. Political self-concept was solely influenced by interest in politics. Although media literacy had no direct influence on political self-concept, it influenced its precursor interest in politics and was thus expected to have distal influence. The results of the first study confirm previous findings (e.g., Vecchione & Caprara, 2009), where political self-concept is regarded as a precursor of political participation. In conclusion, the findings of study I suggested that by stimulating political interest, media literacy could, mediated through political self-concept, foster political participation.
Study II (which was conducted on the same sample as study I) was concerned with the question of whether highly media-literate adolescent and young adult participants exhibit better academic skills (mathematics; reading) and academic achievement (grades) compared to less media-literate participants. Additionally, to obtain information about potential development during adolescence, a group of 50 13-year-olds was compared with a group of 51 19-year-olds in terms of their media literacy. The control variables were intelligence, SES, sex, and age. The results showed that a significant development of media literacy took place during adolescence (∆M = .17), agreeing with Potter’s (1998, 2013) development theory of media literacy. Media literacy was significantly correlated with reading skills and school grades. Regarding adults, media literacy was also significantly correlated with mathematical skills; the association was greater than that with reading skills. However, no connection with mathematical skills was found for adolescents. To control for the influence of age and intelligence, which were both associated with media literacy, hierarchical regressions and path analyses were conducted. The results revealed that media literacy had a greater impact on grades and academic abilities than intelligence. These results are in line with those obtained by Paino and Renzulli (2012).
Study III investigated whether media literacy helps young adults to better learn from three kinds of media, a written, an auditory, and an audio-visual text, and which medium achieves the best learning results. Three groups of 91 young adults were compared (written, auditory, and audio-visual text) in terms of their learning outcomes. These outcomes were conceptualized as directly stated information in the text (assessed by text-based questions) and inferential learning (inference questions). A computer-based short version of the WMK was applied to assess media literacy, which should be optimized in the future. The control variables were intelligence, verbal ability, media usage, prior knowledge, and SES. In hierarchical regression, media literacy turned out to be a significant predictor of text inferences, even when other relevant variables, such as intelligence, were controlled for. Inferences foster the building of the situation model, which is believed by many authors to be true comprehension of a text (Zwaan & Radvansky, 1998). The outcomes of study III support Ohler’s (1994) assumption that media literacy fosters the creation of a more elaborated situational model. Text-based questions were only influenced by prior knowledge. As assumed by Potter (1998, 2016), the media literacy of young adults in the Western world suffices to extract relevant facts from educational learning material. Both subjects were best in the written text condition for text-based and inference question results. Audiovisual and auditory texts showed no significant differences. The written text condition did not excel in the auditory text condition for inferences. The results accord with those obtained by, for instance, Byrne and Curtis (2000).
Taken together, these studies show that media literacy can influence several cognitive and political variables. It stimulates political interest, reading comprehension, school grades, and mathematical abilities in young adults, as well as drawing inferences from different kinds of texts. Additionally, media literacy develops further during adolescence.
From simply ringing a bell to preparing a five-course menu, human behavior commonly causes changes in the environment. Such episodes where an agent acts, thereby causing changes in their environment constitute the sense of agency. In this thesis four series of experi-ments elucidate how the sense of agency is represented in complex action-event sequences, thereby bridging a gap between basic cognitive research and real-life practice. It builds upon extensive research on the sense of agency in unequivocal sequences consisting of single ac-tions and distinct, predominantly auditory, outcomes. Employing implicit as well as explicit measures, the scope is opened up to multi-step sequences.
The experiments show that it is worthwhile devoting more research to complex action-event sequences. With a newly introduced auditory measure (Chapter II), common phenomena such as temporal binding and a decrease in agency ratings following distorted feedback were replicated in multi-step sequences. However, diverging results between traditional implicit and explicit measures call for further inspection. Multisensory integration appears to gain more weight when multiple actions have to be performed to attain a goal leading to more accurate representations of the own actions (Chapter III). Additionally, freedom of choice (Chapter III) as well as early spatial ambiguity altered the perceived timing of outcomes, while late spatial ambi-guity (Chapter IV) and the outcome’s self-relevance did not (Chapter V). The data suggests that the cognitive system is capable of representing multi-step action-event sequences implicitly and explicitly. Actions and sensory events show a temporal attraction stemming from a bias in the perception of outcomes. Explicit knowledge about causing an event-sequence facilitates neither feelings of control nor taking authorship. The results corroborate current theorizing on the un-derpinnings of temporal binding and the divergence between traditional implicit and explicit measures of the sense of agency. Promising avenues for further research include structured analyses of how much inferred causality contributes to implicit and explicit measures of agency as well as finding alternative measures to capture conceptual as well as non-conceptual facets of the agency experience with one method.
Conspiracy theories and fake news are receiving wide media coverage and their proliferation has motivated academic research on the driving factors irrational cognition and behavior. This dissertation focuses on individuals' beliefs about knowledge and knowing, which are commonly referred to as epistemic beliefs. The term post-truth epistemic beliefs is proposed and defined as a strong trust in one’s intuition, a low need to align opinions with evidence, and the strong conviction that truth is a matter of power. Across six online studies, a mediation model is proposed and tested. It includes the core of all dark traits, the Dark Factor of Personality (D), as an antecedent of post-truth epistemic beliefs, and irrational cognition and behavior as consequences. Manuscript #1 comprises four studies showing that post-truth epistemic beliefs are rooted in D and predict increased endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories as well as less engagement in health-protective behavior against COVID-19. Manuscript #2 includes a US nationally representative study suggesting that post-truth epistemic beliefs and D predict a lower probability of having been vaccinated against COVID-19. Manuscript #3 presents a repeated measures experiment indicating that the nexus of D and post-truth epistemic beliefs also predicts less discernment between fake and accurate news. These findings highlight a major insight and a serious challenge for rational communication: Some individuals deliberately disregard (scientific) evidence and rational decision-making. Against this background, the need to foster the epistemological development of students and educators is emphasized.
Although the concept of wealth is a topic that ancient philosophers have dealt with, relatively little attention is paid to it in psychology. This work sheds light on cognitive processes on how individuals derive a judgment about whether someone is rich and whether certain cues serve as subjective indicators of wealth. Based on three chapters that describe K = 11 observational and experimental studies (N = 2,315), three research questions shall be answered: First, to what extent do individuals differ when defining wealth? Secondly, are there universal cues of wealth that individuals use to identify rich people? And if yes, in what sense do these cues depend on the situation or context? Furthermore, it will be asked whether there are situational boundaries under which those cues do not apply. The present research shows that individuals differ in defining wealth and that they take their personal life circumstances and situational cues into account to define wealth. Moreover, evidence for a coherent wealth cue model was found that describes cues that are used by individuals to identify the rich (i.e., particularly wealthy people), whereby the validity of these cues depends on several contextual (e.g., cultural) factors. Lastly, it was found that by isolating individual wealth cues and looking at core mental representations of these cues, they may not be perceived as indicative for rich people anymore. The conclusions reported here set a foundation for further research on the perceptions of wealth which may be particularly relevant for the political discourse
Humans spontaneously blink several times a minute. These blinks are strongly modulated during various cognitive task. However, the precise function of blinking and the reason for their modulation has not been fully understood. In the present work, I investigated the function of spontaneous blinks through various perceptual and cognitive tasks. Previous research has revealed that blinks rates decrease during some tasks but increase during others. When trying to understand these seemingly contradictory results, I observed that blink reduction occurs when one engages with an external input. For instance, a decrease has been observed due to the onset of a stimulus, sensory input processing and attention towards sensory input. However, for activities that do not involve such an engagement, e.g. imagination, daydreaming or creativity, the blink rate has been shown to increase. To follow up on the proposed hypothesis, I distinguished tasks that involve the processing of an external stimulus and tasks that involve disengagement.
In the first part of the project, I explored blinking during stimulus engagement. If the probability of blinking is low when engaging with the stimulus, then one should find a reduction in blinks specifically during the time period of processing but not during sensory input per se. To this end, in study 1, I tested the influence of task-relevant information duration on blink timing and additionally manipulated the overall sensory input using a visual and an auditory temporal simultaneity judgement task. The results showed that blinks were suppressed longer for longer periods of relevant information or in other words, blinks occurred at the end of relevant information processing for both the visual and the auditory modality. Since relevance is mediated through top-down processes, I argue that the reduction in blinks is a top-down driven suppression. In studies 2 and 3, I again investigated stimulus processing, but in this case, processing was triggered internally and not based on specific changes in the external input. To this end, I used bistable stimuli, in which the actual physical stimulus remains constant but their perception switches between different interpretations. Studies on the involvement of attention in such bistable perceptual changes indicate that the sensory input is reprocessed before the perceptual switch. The results revealed a reduction in eye blink rates before the report of perceptual switches. Importantly, I was able to decipher that the decrease was not caused by the perceptual switch or the behavioral response but likely started before the internal switch. Additionally, periods between a blink and a switch were longer than interblink intervals, indicating that blinks were followed by a period of stable percept. To conclude, the first part of the project revealed that there is a top-down driven blink suppression during the processing of an external stimulus.
In the second part of the project, I extended the idea of blinks marking the disengagement from external processing and tested if blinking is associated with better performance during internally directed processes. Specifically, I investigated divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, and the link between performance and blink rates as well as the effect of motor restriction. While I could show that motor restriction was the main factor influencing divergent thinking, the relationship between eye blink rates and creative output also depended on restriction. Results showed that higher blink rates were associated with better performance during free movement, but only between subjects. In other words, subjects who had overall higher blink rates scored better in the task, but when they were allowed to sit or walk freely. Within a single subject, trial with higher blink rates were not associated with better performance. Therefore, possibly, people who are able to disengage easily, as indicated by an overall high blink rate, perform better in divergent thinking tasks. However, the link between blink rate and internal tasks is not clear at this point. Indeed, a more complex measurement of blink behavior might be necessary to understand the relationship.
In the final part of the project, I aimed to further understand the function of blinks through their neural correlates. I extracted the blink-related neural activity in the primary visual cortex (V1) of existing recordings of three rhesus monkeys during different sensory processing states. I analyzed spike related multi-unit responses, frequency dependent power changes, local field potentials and laminar distribution of activity while the animal watched a movie compared to when it was shown a blank screen. The results showed a difference in blink-related neural activity dependent on the processing state. This difference suggests a state dependent function of blinks.
Taken altogether, the work presented in this thesis suggests that eye blinks have an important function during cognitive and perceptual processes. Blinks seem to facilitate a disengagement from the external world and are therefore suppressed during intended processing of external stimuli.
Hintergrund: An der Universität Würzburg wurde bereits im Wintersemester 2018/19 eine 90-minütige Lehrveranstaltung zur Nikotinentwöhnung als Präsenz- oder E-Learning-Seminar im 6. Semester implementiert. In 2020 wurden weitere Bausteine ergänzt: eine Kurzinfo zur Raucherberatung im 9. Semester und die Beratung realer Patienten im 10. Semester im Blockpraktikum-Allgemeinmedizin (BPA).
Fragestellung: Wie wirkt sich der Besuch des Seminars langfristig auf das Beratungs-Wissen aus? Ist eine Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung im Rahmen des BPA machbar? Erhöht sich dadurch die subjektive Sicherheit der Studierenden?
Methoden: Im Sommersemester 2020 wurden Studierende des 9. Semesters, die regulär das Seminar zur Raucherberatung im Wintersemester 2018/19 besucht haben sollten, online bzgl. Wissen zur Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung befragt. Es folgten vertonte PowerPoint-Folien zur Raucherberatung (Kurzinfo).
Im Wintersemester 2020/21 im BPA sollten die Studierenden ein Nikotinentwöhnungsgespräch mit einem Patienten in der Lehrpraxis durchführen und ihre Erfahrungen und subjektive Sicherheit mittels Online-Befragung retrospektiv evaluieren.
Ergebnisse: In der Befragung des 9. Semesters (n=54, Rücklauf: 35%) schätzten Teilnehmende der Ursprungskohorte (n=35 von ursprünglich 130) im Vergleich zu Nicht-Teilnehmenden (n=19) ihr Wissen deutlich höher ein (p=0,016). Dabei spielte die zuvor besuchte Lehrform keine Rolle (p=0,963).
Im BPA führten 50% (n=57) der 114 Befragten (Rücklauf: 74%) eine Nikotinberatung mit einem Patienten durch, dabei stieg die Sicherheit, ein solches Gespräch zu führen, signifikant (p<0,001). Beratende Studierende beurteilten den Zugewinn an Fertigkeiten durch das BPA höher (p<0,001) und hielten es für wichtiger, Patienten zu ihrem Rauchverhalten zu beraten (p=0,048).
Diskussion: Unabhängig von der Lehrform scheint sich ein Seminar zur Raucherberatung langfristig positiv auf das Wissen auszuwirken. Für 50% war eine Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung im BPA machbar. Als Hinderungsgründe wurden fehlende Gelegenheiten und ungeeignete Patienten angegeben. Die Beratung eines Patienten in einer realen Situation erhöht die Beratungssicherheit.
Im Zuge des technischen Fortschritts ist das hochautomatisierte Fahren nach SAE Level 3 (SAE, 2018) in
den vergangenen Jahren in greifbare Nähe gerückt. Es ist damit zu rechnen, dass Fahrzeuge in naher Zukunft zumindest bei Vorliegen einer Reihe strikter Rahmenbedingungen den Fahrer phasenweise von der Fahraufgabe entbinden können. Letzterer muss die Fahrzeugautomation während dieser Phasen nicht überwa
chen und kann sich anderen Tätigkeiten zuwenden. An Systemgrenzen oder bei Systemfehlern (Gold,
Naujoks, Radlmayr, Bellem & Jarosch, 2017) stellt er jedoch die Rückfallebene dar und muss die Fahrzeugkontrolle innerhalb eines angemessenen Zeitraumes übernehmen, sobald ihn das Fahrzeug dazu auffordert. Diese Rückübertragung der Fahraufgabe an den Fahrer stellt ein kritisches Nadelöhr für die Sicherheit und Akzeptanz automatisierter Fahrsysteme dar. Aus psychologischer Perspektive handelt es sich hierbei um Aufgabenwechsel. Diese gehen in Experimenten der kognitiven und angewandten Psychologie zuverlässig mit Kosten einher, welche sich in verlängerten Reaktionszeiten und erhöhten Fehlerraten bei der Aufgabenbearbeitung niederschlagen. Insbesondere im Bereich des automatisierten Fahrens liegen zahlreiche Belege vor, dass der Wechsel zwischen automatisiertem und manuellem Fahren zu einer Verschlechterung der Fahrleistungen gegenüber dem manuellen Fahren führen kann.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit diesen Übergängen und fokussiert dabei die Tätigkeiten, denen Fahrer während der hochautomatisierten Fahrabschnitte nachgehen können. Vier Experimente im Fahrsimulator betrachten die Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Aspekte fahrfremder Tätigkeiten (FFT) in Übernahmesituationen sowie deren Zusammenwirken mit unterschiedlichen Übernahmeaufforderungen.
Im ersten Experiment wird zunächst der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern sich die Vielzahl denkbarer und zu erwartender FFT durch übergeordnete und damit systematisch untersuchbare Merkmale auszeichnet und
welche dies gegebenenfalls sind. Im zweiten Experiment werden anschließend die relevantesten Merkmale,
Unterbrechungsaufwand und Anreiz zur Weiterbearbeitung der Aufgabe daraufhin untersucht, welchen Ein-
fluss sie auf Fahrerleistungen in Übernahmesituationen ausüben. Im dritten Experiment wird der Frage nachgegangen, welches Potenzial solche Übernahmeaufforderungen besitzen, deren Dringlichkeit adaptiv
ist hinsichtlich des jeweiligen Aufwandes der Aufgabenunterbrechung sowie des jeweiligen Anreizes zur
Weiterbearbeitung der Aufgabe. Im vierten Experiment wird ein Übernahmekonzept untersucht, bei dem der Zeitpunkt der Übernahmeaufforderung adaptiv ist hinsichtlich des jeweiligen Aufwandes der Aufgaben-
unterbrechung. Die vorliegende Arbeit kann mit dem Unterbrechungsaufwand und dem Bearbeitungsanreiz zwei in L3-Übernahmesituationen wesentliche Merkmale fahrfremder Tätigkeiten identifizieren (Studien 1 und 2). Darüber hinaus wird eine experimentelle Variation des Unterbrechungsaufwandes erbracht und deren Effekte abgebildet (Studie 2). Durch den Vergleich adaptiver und nicht adaptiver Transitionskonzepte werden die Vorteile von Adaptivität im Rahmen von L3-Übernahmesituationen experimentell herausgearbeitet (Studien 3 und 4).
One of the features that defines humans as extraordinarily social beings is their striking susceptibility to the gaze of others. The research reported in this dissertation was undertaken to advance our understanding of the role of gaze cues in low-level attentional and higher-order cognitive processes. In particular, effects of gaze were examined with regard to three aspects of human cognition: (1) social attention, (2) social interaction and (3) social understanding. Chapter 1 consists of three manuscripts that investigate the boundary conditions of attention capture by direct gaze and how gaze direction is integrated with facial context information. Manuscript 1 and 2 suggest two necessary requirements for attention capture by direct gaze: a meaningful holistic facial context and sharp foveal vision, respectively. Manuscript 3 shows approach/avoidance-congruency effects between gaze direction and emotion expression on attention. Chapter 2 of this dissertation explores the role of gaze in more naturalistic social scenarios. Manuscript 4 demonstrates that gaze behavior during a conversation shapes our perception of another person. Manuscript 5 builds on these findings by showing that these perceptions define our willingness to act in a prosocial way towards our interaction partner. Finally, chapter 3 adopts a broader perspective on social cognition research with a special focus on methodological aspects. Manuscript 6 is a review highlighting the significance of methodological aspects in social cognition research and stressing the importance of sophisticated decisions on task and stimulus materials. Manuscript 7 introduces a new instrument for the assessment of social understanding in adolescents. Initial application in a young sample group indicates that an understanding of another person’s mental states is a capacity that is still developing throughout adolescence. Both manuscripts of this final chapter include eye tracking data that suggest a relationship between gaze behavior and social understanding, a finding that further emphasizes the complex and multifaceted nature of social cognition. I conclude from the findings of this dissertation that research can benefit from adopting a broad view in terms of methodological as well as temporal aspects in order to capture human social cognition in its entirety.