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Background: Inactivation of the p53 pathway that controls cell cycle progression, apoptosis and senescence, has been proposed to occur in virtually all human tumors and p53 is the protein most frequently mutated in human cancer. However, the mutational status of p53 in melanoma is still controversial; to clarify this notion we analysed the largest series of melanoma samples reported to date. Methodology/Principal Findings: Immunohistochemical analysis of more than 180 melanoma specimens demonstrated that high levels of p53 are expressed in the vast majority of cases. Subsequent sequencing of the p53 exons 5–8, however, revealed only in one case the presence of a mutation. Nevertheless, by means of two different p53 reporter constructs we demonstrate transcriptional inactivity of wild type p53 in 6 out of 10 melanoma cell lines; the 4 other p53 wild type melanoma cell lines exhibit p53 reporter gene activity, which can be blocked by shRNA knock down of p53. Conclusions/Significance: In melanomas expressing high levels of wild type p53 this tumor suppressor is frequently inactivated at transcriptional level.
Background: In principle, the elimination of malignancies by oncolytic virotherapy could proceed by different mechanisms - e.g. tumor cell specific oncolysis, destruction of the tumor vasculature or an anti-tumoral immunological response. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of these factors to elucidate the responsible mechanism for regression of human breast tumor xenografts upon colonization with an attenuated vaccinia virus (VACV). Methods: Breast tumor xenografts were analyzed 6 weeks post VACV infection (p.i.; regression phase) by immunohistochemistry and mouse-specific expression arrays. Viral-mediated oncolysis was determined by tumor growth analysis combined with microscopic studies of intratumoral virus distribution. The tumor vasculature was morphologically characterized by diameter and density measurements and vessel functionality was analyzed by lectin perfusion and extravasation studies. Immunological aspects of viral-mediated tumor regression were studied in either immune-deficient mouse strains (T-, B-, NK-cell-deficient) or upon cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression (MHCII+-cell depletion) in nude mice. Results: Late stage VACV-infected breast tumors showed extensive necrosis, which was highly specific to cancer cells. The tumor vasculature in infected tumor areas remained functional and the endothelial cells were not infected. However, viral colonization triggers hyperpermeability and dilatation of the tumor vessels, which resembled the activated endothelium in wounded tissue. Moreover, we demonstrated an increased expression of genes involved in leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction in VACV-infected tumors, which orchestrate perivascular inflammatory cell infiltration. The immunohistochemical analysis of infected tumors displayed intense infiltration of MHCII-positive cells and colocalization of tumor vessels with MHCII+/CD31+ vascular leukocytes. However, GI-101A tumor growth analysis upon VACV-infection in either immunosuppressed nude mice (MHCII+-cell depleted) or in immune-deficient mouse strains (T-, B-, NK-cell-deficient) revealed that neither MHCII-positive immune cells nor T-, B-, or NK cells contributed significantly to VACV-mediated tumor regression. In contrast, tumors of immunosuppressed mice showed enhanced viral spreading and tumor necrosis. Conclusions: Taken together, these results indicate that VACV-mediated oncolysis is the primary mechanism of tumor shrinkage in the late regression phase. Neither the destruction of the tumor vasculature nor the massive VACV-mediated intratumoral inflammation was a prerequisite for tumor regression. We propose that approaches to enhance viral replication and spread within the tumor microenvironment should improve therapeutical outcome.
Characterisation of Metalloprotease-mediated EGFR Signal Transactivation after GPCR Stimulation
(2011)
In the context of metalloprotease-mediated transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor, different monoclonal antibodies against ADAM17 / TACE were characterized for their ability to block the sheddase. Activity of some of them was observed at doses between 2µg/mL and 10µg/mL. Kinetic analyses showed their activity starting at around 30 minutes. In cellular assays performed with the antibodies, especially upon treatment of cells with sphingosine-1-phosphate a reduction in proliferation was observed with some candidates. Moreover this study provides potential new roles for ß-Arrestins. Their involvement in the triple membrane-passing signal pathway of EGFR transactivation was shown. Furthermore, in overexpressing cellular model systems, an interaction between ADAM17 and ß-Arrestin1 could be observed. Detailed analysis discovered that phosphorylation of ß-Arrestin1 is crucial for this interaction. Additionally, the novel mechanism of UV-induced EGFR transactivation was extended to squamous cell carcinoma. The mechanism happens in a dose dependent manner and requires a metalloprotease to shed the proligand Amphiregulin. The involvement of both ADAM9 and ADAM17, being the metalloproteases responsible for this cleavage, was shown for SCC9 cells.
BAD (Bcl-2 antagonist of cell death, Bcl-2 associated death promoter) is a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 protein family that is regulated by phosphorylation in response to survival factors. Although much attention has been devoted to the identification of phosphorylation sites in murine BAD (mBAD), little data are available with respect to phosphorylation of human BAD (hBAD) protein. In this work, we investigated the quantitative contribution of BAD targeting kinases in phosphorylating serines 75, 99 and 118 of hBAD (Chapter 3.1). Our results indicate that RAF kinases phosphorylate hBAD in vivo at these established serine residues. RAF-induced phosphorylation of hBAD was not prevented by MEK inhibitors but could be reduced to control levels by use of the RAF inhibitor Sorafenib (BAY 43-9006). Consistently, expression of active RAF suppressed apoptosis induced by hBAD and the inhibition of colony formation caused by hBAD could be prevented by RAF. In addition, using surface plasmon resonance technique we analyzed the direct consequences of hBAD phosphorylation by RAF with respect to complex formation of BAD with 14-3-3 proteins and Bcl-XL. Phosphorylation of hBAD by active RAF promotes 14-3-3 protein association, whereby the phosphoserine 99 represents the major binding site. Furthermore, we demonstrate in this work that hBAD forms channels in planar bilayer membranes in vitro. This pore-forming capacity is dependent on phosphorylation status and interaction with 14-3-3 proteins. Additionally, we show that hBAD pores possess a funnel-shaped geometry that can be entered by ions and non-charged molecules up to 200 Da (Chapter 3.2). Since both lipid binding domains of hBAD (LBD1 and LBD2) are located within the C-terminal region, we investigated this part of the protein with respect to its structural properties (Chapter 3.3). Our results demonstrate that the C-terminus of hBAD possesses an ordered β-sheet structure in aqueous solution that adopts helical disposition upon interaction with lipid membranes. Additionally, we show that the interaction of the C-terminal segment of hBAD with the BH3 domain results in the formation of permanently open pores, whereby the phosphorylation of serine 118 proved to be necessary for effective pore-formation. In contrast, phosphorylation of serine 99 in combination with 14-3-3 association suppresses formation of channels. These results indicate that the C-terminal part of hBAD controls hBAD function by structural transitions, lipid binding and phosphorylation. Using mass spectrometry we identified in this work, besides the established in vivo phosphorylation sites at serines 75, 99 and 118, several novel hBAD phosphorylation sites (serines 25, 32/34, 97, 124 and 134, Chapter 3.1). To further analyze the regulation of hBAD function, we investigated the role of these newly identified phosphorylation sites on BAD-mediated apoptosis. We found that in contrast to the N-terminal phosphorylation sites, the C-terminal serines 124 and 134 act in an anti-apoptotic manner (Chapter 3.4). Our results further indicate that RAF kinases and PAK1 effectively phosphorylate BAD at serine 134. Notably, in the presence of wild type hBAD, co-expression of survival kinases, such as RAF and PAK1, leads to a strongly increased proliferation, whereas substitution of serine 134 by alanine abolishes this process. Furthermore, we identified hBAD serine 134 to be strongly involved in survival signaling in B-RAF-V600E containing tumor cells and found phosphorylation of this residue to be crucial for efficient proliferation in these cells. Collectively, our findings provide new insights into the regulation of hBAD function by phosphorylation and its role in cancer signaling.