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Within the scope of this thesis two main topics have been investigated: the examination of micromagnetic sensors and transport of massive and massless Dirac fermions in HgTe quantum wells. For the investigation of localized, inhomogeneous magnetic fields, the fabrication and characterization of two different non-invasive and ultra sensitive sensors has been established at the chair ”Experimentelle Physik” of the University of Würzburg. The first sensor is based on the young technique named micro-Hall magnetometry. The necessary semiconductor devices (Hall cross structures) were fabricated by high-resolution electron beam lithography based on two different two dimensional electron gases (2DEGs), namely InAs/(Al,Ga)Sb- and HgTe/(Hg,Cd)Te- heterostructures. The characteristics have been examined in two different ways. Measurements in homogeneous magnetic fields served for characterization of the sensors, whereas the investigation of artificially produced sub-µm magnets substantiates the suitability of the devices for the study of novel nanoscale magnetic materials (e.g. nanowires). Systematic experiments with various magnets are in accordance with the theory of single-domain particles and anisotropic behavior due to shapes with high aspect ratio. The highest sensitivity for strongly localized fields was obtained at T = 4.2 K for a (200x200) nm^2 Hall cross - made from shallow, high mobility HgTe 2DEG. Although the field resolution was merely δB ≈ 100 µT, the nanoscale sensor size yields an outstanding flux resolution of δΦ = 2 10^(−3) Φ0, where Φ0 = h/2e is the flux quantum. Translating this result in terms of magnetic moment, the sensitivity allows for the detection of magnetization changes of a particle centered on top of the sensor as low as δM ≈ 10^2 µB, with the magnetic moment of a single electron µB, the Bohr magneton. The further examination of a permalloy nanomagnet with a cross-section of (100x20) nm^2 confirms the expected resolution ability, extracted from the noise of the sensor. The observed high signal-to-noise ratio validates the detection limit of this sensor in terms of geometry. This would be reached for a magnet (same material) with quadratic cross-section for an edge length of 3.3 nm. Moreover, the feasibility of this sensor for operation in a wide temperature range (T = mK... > 200 K) and high magnetic fields has been confirmed. The second micromagnetic sensor is the micro-SQUID (micro-Superconducting-QUantum-Interference-Device) based on niobium. The typical sensor area of the devices built in this work was (1.0x1.0) µm^2, with constrictions of about 20 nm. The characterization of this device demonstrates an amazing field sensitivity (regarding its size) of δB < 1 µT. Even though the sensor was 25 times larger than the best micro-Hall sensor, it provided an excellent flux resolution in the order of δΦ ≈ 5 10^(−4) Φ0 and a similar magnetic moment resolution of δM ≈ 10^2 µB. Furthermore, the introduction of an ellipsoidal permalloy magnet (axes: 200 nm and 400 nm, thickness 30 nm) substantiates the suitability for the detection of minuscule, localized magnetic fields. The second part of the thesis deals with the peculiar transport properties of HgTe quantum wells. These rely on the linear contribution to the band structure inherent to the heterostructure. Therefore the system can be described by an effective Dirac Hamiltonian, whose Dirac mass is tunable by the variation of the quantum well thickness. By fabrication and characterization of a systematical series of substrates, a system with vanishing Dirac mass (zero energy gap) has been confirmed. This heterostructure therefore resembles graphene (a monolayer of graphite), with the difference of exhibiting only one valley in the energy dispersion of the Brillouin zone. Thus parasitical intervalley scattering cannot occur. The existence of this system has been proven by the agreement of theoretical predictions, based on widely accepted band structure calculations with the experiment (Landau level dispersion, conductivity). Furthermore, another particularity of the band structure - the transition from linear to parabolic character - has been illustrated by the widths of the plateaus in the quantum Hall effect. Finally, the transport of ”massive” Dirac fermions (with finite Dirac mass) is investigated. In particular the describing Dirac Hamiltonian induces weak localization effects depending on the Dirac mass. This mechanism has not been observed to date, and survives in higher temperatures compared to typical localization mechanisms.
This work deals with nonlinear optics with wavefront controlled ultra-short laser pulses. The effects studied are self-phase modulation due to filamentation of ultra-short laser pulses and high-order harmonic generation in a jet of noble gas. Additionally, a way to optimize the spectral brilliance of the high-order harmonic source is studied by measuring the spectrum and wavefront of the generated XUV beam.
This thesis investigated the potential of Compressed Sensing (CS) applied to Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). CS is a novel image reconstruction method that emerged from the field of information theory. The framework of CS was first published in technical reports in 2004 by Candès and Donoho. Two years later, the theory of CS was published in a conference abstract and two papers. Candès and Donoho proved that it is possible, with overwhelming probability, to reconstruct a noise-free sparse signal from incomplete frequency samples (e.g., Fourier coefficients). Hereby, it is assumed a priori that the desired signal for reconstruction is sparse. A signal is considered “sparse“ when the number of non-zero elements is significantly smaller than the number of all elements. Sparsity is the most important foundation of CS. When an ideal noise-free signal with few non-zero elements is given, it should be understandably possible to obtain the relevant information from fewer Fourier coefficients than dictated by the Nyquist-Shannon criterion. The theory of CS is based on noise-free sparse signals. As soon as noise is introduced, no exact sparsity can be specified since all elements have signal intensities that are non-zero. However, with the addition of little or moderate noise, an approximate sparsity that can be exploited using the CS framework will still be given. The ability to reconstruct noisy undersampled sparse MRI data using CS has been extensively demonstrated. Although most MR datasets are not sparse in image space, they can be efficiently sparsified by a sparsifying transform. In this thesis, the data are either sparse in the image domain, after Discrete Gradient transformation, or after subtraction of a temporally averaged dataset from the data to be reconstructed (dynamic imaging). The aim of this thesis was to identify possible applications of CS to MRI. Two different algorithms were considered for reconstructing the undersampled sparse data with the CS concept. The Nonlinear Conjugate Gradient based technique with a relaxed data consistency constraint as suggested by Lustig et al. is termed Relaxed DC method. An alternative represents the Gradient or Steepest Descent algorithm with strict data consistency and is, therefore, termed the Strict DC method. Chapter 3 presents simulations illustrating which of these two reconstruction algorithms is best suited to recover undersampled sparse MR datasets. The results lead to the decision for the Strict DC method as reconstruction technique in this thesis. After these simulations, different applications and extensions of CS are demonstrated. Chapter 4 shows how CS benefits spectroscopic 19F imaging at 7 T, allowing a significant reduction of measurement times during in vivo experiments. Furthermore, it allows highly resolved spectroscopic 3D imaging in acceptable measurement times for in vivo applications. Chapter 5 introduces an extension of the Strict DC method called CS-CC (CS on Combined Coils), which allows efficient processing of sparse undersampled multi-coil data. It takes advantage of a concept named “Joint Sparsity“, which exploits the fact that all channels of a coil array detect the same sparse object weighted with the coil sensitivity profiles. The practical use of this new algorithm is demonstrated in dynamic radial cardiac imaging. Accurate reconstructions of cardiac motion in free breathing without ECG triggering were obtained for high undersampling factors. An Iterative GRAPPA algorithm is introduced in Chapter 6 that can recover undersampled data from arbitrary (Non-Cartesian) trajectories and works solely in the Cartesian plane. This characteristic makes the proposed Iterative GRAPPA computationally more efficient than SPIRiT. Iterative GRAPPA was developed in a preceding step to combine parallel imaging with CS. Optimal parameters for Iterative GRAPPA (e.g. number of iterations, GRAPPA kernel size) were determined in phantom experiments and verified by retrospectively undersampling and reconstructing a radial cardiac cine dataset. The synergistic combination of the coil-by-coil Strict DC CS method and Iterative GRAPPA called CS-GRAPPA is presented in Chapter 7. CS-GRAPPA allows accurate reconstruction of undersampled data from even higher acceleration factors than each individual method. It is a formulation equivalent to L1-SPIRiT but computationally more efficient. Additionally, a comparison with CS-CC is given. Interestingly, exploiting joint sparsity in CS-CC is slightly more efficient than the proposed CS-GRAPPA, a hybrid of parallel imaging and CS. The last chapter of this thesis concludes the findings presented in this dissertation. Future applications expected to benefit from CS are discussed and possible synergistic combinations with other existing MR methodologies for accelerated imaging are also contemplated.
Oxide heterostructures attract a lot of attention as they display a vast range of physical phenomena like conductivity, magnetism, or even superconductivity. In most cases, these effects are caused by electron correlations and are therefore interesting for studying fundamental physics, but also in view of future applications. This thesis deals with the growth and characterization of several prototypical oxide heterostructures. Fe3O4 is highly ranked as a possible spin electrode in the field of spintronics. A suitable semiconductor for spin injection in combination with Fe3O4 is ZnO due to its oxide character and a sufficiently long spin coherence length. Fe3O4 has been grown successfully on ZnO using pulsed laser deposition and molecular beam epitaxy by choosing the oxygen partial pressure adequately. Here, a pressure variation during growth reduces an FeO-like interface layer. Fe3O4 films grow in an island-like growth mode and are structurally nearly fully relaxed, exhibiting the same lattice constants as the bulk materials. Despite the presence of a slight oxygen off-stoichiometry, indications of the Verwey transition hint at high-quality film properties. The overall magnetization of the films is reduced compared to bulk Fe3O4 and a slow magnetization behavior is observed, most probably due to defects like anti-phase boundaries originating from the initial island growth. LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures exhibit a conducting interface above a critical film thickness, which is most likely explained by an electronic reconstruction. In the corresponding model, the potential built-up owing to the polar LaAlO3 overlayer is compensated by a charge transfer from the film surface to the interface. The properties of these heterostructures strongly depend on the growth parameters. It is shown for the first time, that it is mainly the total pressure which determines the macroscopic sample properties, while it is the oxygen partial pressure which controls the amount of charge carriers near the interface. Oxygen-vacancy-mediated conductivity is found for too low oxygen pressures. A too high total pressure, however, destroys interface conductivity, most probably due to a change of the growth kinetics. Post-oxidation leads to a metastable state removing the arbitrariness in controlling the electronic interface properties by the oxygen pressure during growth. LaVO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures exhibit similar behavior compared to LaAlO3/SrTiO3 when it comes to a thickness-dependent metal-insulator transition. But in contrast to LaAlO3, LaVO3 is a Mott insulator exhibiting strong electron correlations. Films have been grown by pulsed laser deposition. Layer-by-layer growth and a phase-pure pervoskite lattice structure is observed, indicating good structural quality of the film and the interface. An electron-rich layer is found near the interface on the LaVO3 side for conducting LaVO3/SrTiO3. This could be explained by an electronic reconstruction within the film. The electrostatic doping results in a band-filling-controlled metal-insulator transition without suffering from chemical impurities, which is unavoidable in conventional doping experiments.
In this work the epitaxial growth and characterization of the half-metallic ferromagnet NiMnSb was presented. NiMnSb crystallizes in the C1b structure which is similar to the zinc blende structure from widely used III-V semiconductors. One special property of NiMnSb is the theoretical 100% spin-polarization at the Fermi edge. This makes it a perfect candidate for spintronic experiments and the material of choice for building novel spintronic devices. Another important topic in this work were the magnetic properties of NiMnSb, especially the low magnetic damping of the grown thin films. All grown layers were fabricated with the technique of MBE. The layer stacks for all different experiments and devices were grown on InP substrate in (001) or (111)B orientation. Before the NiMnSb layer a buffer layer of undoped (In,Ga)As was grown. Additional for some samples on InP(111)B, a Si doped (In,Ga)As layer was grown on top of the undoped (In,Ga)As layer. The dopant concentration of this n-doped layer was determined by ETCH-CV. All layers were investigated by structural and the NiMnSb layer additional by magnetic properties. For the structural investigation the in-situ technique RHEED and ex-situ tool HRXRD were used. RHEED observations showed a good quality of the grown buffer and half-metallic ferromagnet layers on both orientations. These results were strengthened by the HRXRD measurement. The vertical lattice constant could be determined. The received value of a(NiMnSb_vertical) = 5.925 Å for NiMnSb on InP(001) is in good agreement to the value a(NiMnSb_Lit) = 5.903 Å found in literature [Cas55]. For NiMnSb on InP(111)B a vertical lattice constant of a(NiMnSb_vertikal) = 6.017 Å could be determined. The horizontal lattice constant of the buffer and the half-metallic ferromagnet layer could be determined as the same of the substrate. For NiMnSb this conclusion is only valid up to a thickness of ≈40nm. To increase this maximum thickness, NiMnSb samples were grown on InP(001) substrates and capped with Ti/Au layers. Afterwards a reciprocal space map of the (533) reflex was drawn with GIXRD at the synchrotron beamline BW2 of HASYLAB [Kum07]. It has been shown that the critical thickness is more than doubled by depositing a Ti/Au capping directly after growth of NiMnSb without breaking the ultrahigh vacuum (UHV). The magnetic properties were determined with FMR experiments and SQUID measurements. The received magnetic damping parameter α from a 40nm thick NiMnSb layer on InP(001) could be determined to 3.19e−3 along [1-10]. The resulting line width of our NiMnSb layers on InP(001) is more than 4.88 times smaller than measured before [Hei04]. Another result is the direction dependence of the damping. It has been measured that the difference of the damping is changed by more than 42% when rotating the applied field by 45° from [1-10] to [100].With SQUID we measured a saturation magnetization of a 40nm thick NiMnSb layer as 4µB. NiMnSb layers on InP(111)B substrate where also measured with FMR with a surprising result. These layers not only showed a decreasing in the anisotropy field with increasing thickness but also an uniaxial anisotropy. This behaviour can be explained with defects on these samples. With an AFM triangle-like defects were measured. These defects originated from the buffer layer and influenced the magnetic properties. Another part of this work is dedicated to the behaviour of NiMnSb at temperatures around 80K. With our samples, no phase transition can be observed in the data of the Hall, anomalous Hall term and resistivity. The last part of this work discusses different spintronic devices build with our NiMnSb layers. In a first device the magnetization acts on the current. This Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) device consisted of InP:S(001) - 180nm undoped (In,Ga)As - 40nm NiMnSb - 10nm Cu - 6nm NiFe - 10nm Ru in current perpendicular to plane (CPP) geometry. We received a Magneto-Resistance-Ratio of 3.4%. In a second device the current acts on the magnetization and makes use of the spin torque phenomena. This so called Spin Torque Oscillator (STO) emitted frequencies in the GHz range (13.94GHz - 14.1GHz). The last fabricated device is based on the magnetic vortex phenomena. For switching the core polarity the gyrotropic frequencies f + = 254MHz f − = 217MHz and a total static magnetic field of only mµ0H = 65mT were necessary. The reversal efficiency has been determined as better than 99% [Lou09].
Time-resolved optical spectroscopy has become an important tool to investigate the dynamics of quantum mechanical processes in matter. In typical applications, a first “pump” pulse excites the system under investigation from the thermal equilibrium to an excited state, and a second variable time-delayed “probe” pulse then maps the dynamics of the excited system. Although advanced nonlinear techniques have been developed to investigate, e.g., coherent quantum effects, all of these techniques are limited in their spatial resolution. The laser focus diameter has a lower bound given by Abbe’s diffraction limit, which is roughly half the optical excitation wavelength—corresponding to about 400nm in the presented experiments. In the time-resolved experiments that have been suggested so far, averaging over the sample volume within this focus cannot be avoided. In this thesis, two approaches were developed to overcome the diffraction limit in optical spectroscopy and to enable the investigation of coherent processes on the nanoscale. In the first approach, analytic solutions were found to calculate optimal polarizationshaped laser pulses that provide optical near-field pump–probe pulse sequences in the vicinity of a nanostructure. These near-field pulse sequences were designed to allow excitation of a quantum system at one specific position at a certain time and probing at a different position at a later time. In the second approach, the concept of coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy, which has had great impact on the investigation of coherent quantum effects in recent years, was combined with photoemission electron microscopy, which yields a spatial resolution well below the optical diffraction limit. Using the analytic solutions, optical near fields were investigated in terms of spectroscopic applications. Near fields that are excited with polarization-shaped femtosecond laser pulses in the vicinity of appropriate nanostructures feature two properties that are especially interesting in the view of spectroscopic applications: On the one hand, control of the spatial distribution of the optical fields is achieved on the order of nanometers. On the other hand, the temporal evolution of these fields can be adjusted on the order of femtoseconds. In this thesis, solutions were found to calculate the optimal polarizationshaped laser pulses that control the near field in a general manner. The main idea to achieve this deterministic control was to disentangle the spatial and temporal near-field control. First, the spatial distribution of the optical near field was controlled by assigning the correct state of polarization for each frequency within the polarization-shaped laser pulse independently. The remaining total phase—not employed for spatial control—was then used for temporal near-field compression, which, in experimental applications, would lead to an enhancement of the nonlinear signal at the respective location. In contrast to the use of optical near fields, where pump–probe sequences themselves are localized below the diffraction limit and the detection does not have to provide the spatial resolution, a different approach was suggested in this thesis to gain spectroscopic information on the nanoscale. The new method was termed “Coherent two-dimensional (2D) nanoscopy” and transfers the concept of “conventional” coherent 2D spectroscopy to photoemission electron microscopy. The pulse sequences used for the investigation of quantum systems in this method are still limited by diffraction. However, the new key concept is to detect locally generated photoelectrons instead of optical signals. This yields a spatial resolution that is well below the optical diffraction limit. In “conventional” 2D spectroscopy a triple-pulse sequence initiates a four wave mixing process that creates a coherence. In a quantum mechanical process, this coherence is converted into a population by emission of an electric field, which is measured in the experiment. Contrarily, in the developed 2D nanoscopy, four-wave mixing is initiated by a quadruple-pulse sequence, which leaves the quantum system in an electronic population. This electronic population carries coherent information about the investigated quantum system and can be mapped with a spatial resolution down to a few nanometers given by the spatial resolution of the photoemission electron microscope. Hence, 2D nanoscopy can be considered a generalization of time-resolved photoemission experiments. In the future, it may be of similar beneficial value for the field of photoemission research as “conventional” 2D spectroscopy has proven to be for optical spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. In a first experimental implementation of coherent 2D nanoscopy coherent processes on a corrugated silver surface were measured and unexpected long coherence lifetimes could be determined.
Die Magnet-Resonanz (MR)-Bildgebung ist mit vielfältigen Anwendungen ein nicht mehr wegzudenkendes Instrument der klinischen Diagnostik geworden. Dennoch führt die stark limitierte Messzeit häufig zu einer Einschränkung der erzielbaren räumlichen Auflösung und Abdeckung, einer Beschränkung des Signal-zu-Rauschverhältnis (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) (SNR) sowie einer Signalkontamination durch benachbartes Gewebe. Bereits bestehende Methoden zur Reduktion der Akquisitionszeit sind die partielle Fourier (PF)-Bildgebung und die parallele Bildgebung (PPA). Diese unterscheiden sich zum einen im Schema zur Unterabtastung des k-Raums und zum anderen in der verwendeten Information zur Rekonstruktion der fehlenden k-Raum-Daten aufgrund der beschleunigten Akquisition. Während in der PPA die unterschiedlichen Sensitivitäten einer Mehrkanal-Empfangsspule zur Bildrekonstruktion verwendet werden, basiert die PF-Bildgebung auf der Annahme einer langsamen Variation der Bildphase. Im ersten Abschnitt dieser Arbeit wurde das Konzept der Virtuellen Spulendekonvolutions (Virtual Coil Deconvolution) (VIDE)-Technik vorgestellt, das das gleiche Schema der Unterabtastung des k-Raums wie die konventionelle PPA verwendet, aber anstelle der Spulensensitivität die Bildphase als zusätzliche Information zur Herstellung der fehlenden Daten der beschleunigten Bildgebung verwendet. Zur Minimierung der Rekonstruktionsfehler und der Rauschverstärkung in der VIDE-Technik wurde ein optimiertes Akquisitionsschema entwickelt. Die Kombination der PPA und PF-Bildgebung zur Beschleunigung der MR-Bildgebung wird durch das unterschiedliche Unterabtastschema erschwert. Wie Blaimer et al. in ihrer Arbeit gezeigt haben, kann das Prinzip der VIDE-Technik auf Mehrkanal-Spulen übertragen werden, sodass mit dieser Methode die PPA und die PF-Bildgebung optimal vereint werden können. Dadurch kann die Rauschverstärkung aufgrund der Spulengeometrie ohne zusätzliche Messungen deutlich reduziert werden. Obwohl die Abtastung des k-Raums in der MR-Bildgebung sehr variabel gestaltet werden kann, wird bis heute nahezu ausschließlich die regelmäßige k-Raum-Abtastung in der klinischen Bildgebung verwendet. Der Grund hierfür liegt, neben der schnellen Rekonstruktion und der einfachen Gestaltung der Variation des Bild-Kontrasts, in der Robustheit gegen Artefakte. Allerdings führt die regelmäßige k-Raum-Abtastung zu einer hohen Signalkontamination. Die Optimierung der SRF durch nachträgliches Filtern führt jedoch zu einem SNR-Verlust. Die dichtegewichtete (DW-) Bildgebung ermöglicht die Reduktion der Signal-Kontamination bei optimalem SNR, führt aber zur einer Reduktion des effektiven Gesichtsfelds (FOV) oder einer Erhöhung der Messzeit. Letzteres kann durch eine Kombination der PPA und DW-Bildgebung umgangen werden. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit befasste sich mit neuen Aufnahme- und Rekonstruktionsstrategien für die DW-Bildgebung, die eine Erhöhung des FOVs auch ohne Einsatz der PPA erlauben. Durch eine Limitierung der minimalen k-Raum-Abtastdichte konnte durch eine geringfügige Reduktion des SNR-Vorteils der DW-Bildgebung gegenüber der kartesischen, gefilterten Bildgebung eine deutliche Verringerung der Artefakte aufgrund der Unterabtastung in der DW-Bildgebung erreicht werden. Eine asymmetrische Abtastung kann unter der Voraussetzung einer homogenen Bildphase das Aliasing zusätzlich reduzieren. Durch die Rekonstruktion der DW-Daten mit der Virtuelle Spulendekonvolution für die effektive DW-Bildgebung (VIDED)-Bildgebung konnten die Artefakte aufgrund der Unterabtastung eliminiert werden. In der 3d-Bildgebung konnte durch Anwendung der modifizierten DW-Bildgebung eine Steigerung des FOVs in Schichtrichtung ohne Messzeitverlängerung erreicht werden. Die nicht-kartesische k-Raum-Abtastung führt im Fall einer Unterabtastung zu deutlich geringeren, inkohärenten Aliasingartefakten im Vergleich zur kartesischen Abtastung. Durch ein alternierendes DW-Abtastschema wurde eine an die in der MR-Mammografie verwendete Spulengeometrie angepasste k-Raum-Abtastung entwickelt, das bei gleicher Messzeit die räumliche Auflösung, das SNR und das FOV erhöht. Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Verallgemeinerung der DW-Bildgebung auf signalgewichtete Sequenzen, d.h. Sequenzen mit Magnetisierungspräparation (Inversion Recovery (IR), Saturation Recovery (SR)) sowie Sequenzen mit einer Relaxation während der Datenaufnahme (Multi-Gradienten-Echo, Multi-Spin-Echo) vorgestellt, was eine Steigerung der Bildqualität bei optimalem SNR erlaubt. Die Methode wurde auf die SR-Sequenz angewendet und deren praktischer Nutzen wurde in der Herz-Perfusions-Bildgebung gezeigt. Durch die Verwendung der in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Technik konnte eine Reduktion der Kontamination bei einem SNR-Gewinn von 16% im Vergleich zur konventionellen, kartesischen Abtastung bei gleicher Messzeit erreicht werden.
Optisch transparente und elektrisch leitfähige Funktionsschichten auf der Basis dotierter Metalloxid-Halbleiter spielen eine bedeutende Rolle als wärmestrahlungsreflektierende Schichten in der modernen Architektur. Über die im Material vorhandenen freien Ladungsträger wird eine kollektive Anregung im infraroten Spektralbereich ermöglicht, die zu einem Anstieg der Reflektivität der Metalloxidschicht führt. Dies geht einher mit einer Reduktion der Wärmeabstrahlung der Funktionsschicht. Die Motivation der vorliegenden Dissertation lag in der Herstellung, sowie in einer umfassenden Analyse der infrarot-optischen, elektrischen und strukturellen Charakteristika von nasschemisch abgeschiedenen Funktionsschichten auf Basis von Zinn-dotiertem Indiumoxid und Aluminium-dotiertem Zinkoxid. Die Prämisse war hierbei, dass die Funktionsschichten einen möglichst hohen Reflexionsgrad, respektive einen geringen thermischen Emissionsgrad im infraroten Spektralbereich aufweisen. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wurden deshalb vorrangig die Einflüsse der Sol-Parameter und der Art der Probenpräparation auf die infrarot-optischen Schichteigenschaften hin untersucht. Hierbei hat sich gezeigt, dass es verschiedene Möglichkeiten gibt, die Eigenschaften der Funktionsschichten im infraroten Spektralbereich zu beeinflussen. Dies kann einerseits bereits bei der Herstellung der Beschichtungslösungen über eine Variation von Parametern wie dem Grad der Dotierung bzw. der Konzentration des Sols erfolgen. Andererseits lassen sich gewünschte infrarot-optische Schichteigenschaften direkt über eine Anpassung der Kristallisationstemperaturen unter Zuhilfenahme geeigneter oxidierender und reduzierender Prozessgase einstellen. Im Verlauf der Optimierung der Probenpräparation konnte zudem gezeigt werden, dass eine Variation der Anzahl der Funktionsschichten und die damit verbundene Veränderung der Schichtdicke maßgebliche Einflüsse auf die infrarot-optischen Eigenschaften hat. Die umfassende optische Charakterisierung der optimierten Proben vom UV über den sichtbaren Spektralbereich bis hin zum IR ergab, dass der Gesamtemissionsgrad eines Glassubstrats durch die Aufbringung eines Mehrschichtsystems deutlich gesenkt werden kann, wobei sich die visuelle Transparenz nur geringfügig ändert. Im Falle des verwendeten Indium-Zinn-Oxids genügt eine vierfache Beschichtung mit einer Dicke von rund 450 nm, um den Emissionsgrad von unbeschichtetem Glas (0.89) auf unter 0.20 zu senken, wobei die visuelle Transparenz mit 0.85 nur um rund 6 % abnimmt. Bei Aluminium-Zink-Oxid ergibt sich ein Optimum mit einer rund 1 µm dicken Beschichtung, bestehend aus 11 Einzelschichten, die den Emissionsgrad der Oberfläche auf unter 0.40 senkt. Die optische Transparenz liegt hierbei mit 0.88 nur geringfügig unter dem unbeschichteten Glas mit einem Wert von 0.91. Neben der ausführlichen Charakterisierung der Einflüsse auf die IR-optischen Schichteigenschaften lag der Fokus der Arbeit auf der Analyse der strukturellen und elektrischen Eigenschaften der optimierten Proben. Mittels REM- und AFM-Aufnahmen konnten Einblicke in die Schichtstruktur und Oberflächenbeschaffenheit der erzeugten Funktionsschichten gewonnen werden. Es hat sich gezeigt, dass bedingt durch dicht beieinanderliegende Kristallite eine geringe Porosität innerhalb der Funktionsschicht entsteht, wodurch eine relativ hohe elektrische Leitfähigkeit gewährleistet ist. Dabei resultiert eine homogene Oberflächenstruktur mit einer geringen Oberflächenrauheit. Die Homogenität der Funktionsschichten, speziell im Hinblick auf eine gleichmäßige Verteilung der maßgeblichen Atome, wurde mit Hilfe von SNMS- Messungen und einem EDX-Element-Mapping verifiziert. Mit Hilfe der Analyse des spezifischen Widerstands der optimierten Funktionsschichten konnte ein Zusammenhang zwischen den infrarot-optischen und elektrischen Schichteigenschaften über die Hagen-Rubens Relation erarbeitet werden. Darüber hinaus wurden an den besten, infrarot-optisch optimierten Proben charakteristische Parameter wie die Bandlückenenergie, die Ladungsträgerdichte und die Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit ermittelt. Über die Ladungsträgerdichte war es zudem möglich, die spektrale Lage der Plasmawellenlänge zu bestimmen. Basierend auf den ermittelten Werten der optimierten Metalloxidschichten im Bereich der elektronischen Charakterisierung konnte eine Korrelation der infrarot-optischen und elektrischen Schichteigenschaften anhand charakteristischer Punkte im Spektrum der Funktionsschichten erarbeitet werden. Abschließend wurde der Verlauf des spektralen Reflexionsgrads theoretisch modelliert und über eine Parametervariation an den tatsächlich gemessenen Reflexionsgrad der infrarot-optisch optimierten Proben angefittet. Hierbei zeigte sich eine gute Übereinstimmung der in den physikalischen Grundlagen der vorliegenden Arbeit getroffenen Annahmen mit den experimentell ermittelten Werten.
We investigate transport measurements on all II-VI semiconductor resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs). Being very versatile, the dilute magnetic semiconductor (DMS) system (Zn,Be,Mn,Cd)Se is a perfect testbed for various spintronic device designs, as it allows for separate control of electrical and magnetic properties. In contrast to the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As, doping ZnSe with Mn impurities does not alter the electrical properties of the semiconductor, as the magnetic dopant is isoelectric in the ZnSe host.
For the realization of a programmable logic device, or indeed any nanoscale device, we need a reliable method to probe the magnetization direction of local domains. For this purpose we extend investigations on the previously discovered tunneling anisotropic magneto resistance effect (TAMR) by scaling the pillar size from 100 µm down to 260 nm. We start in chapter 4 with a theoretical description of the TAMR effect and show experimental data of miniaturized pillars in chapter 5. With such small TAMR probes we are able to locally sense the magnetization on the 100 nm scale. Sub-micron TAMR and anisotropic magneto resistance (AMR) measurements of sub-millimeter areas show that the behavior of macroscopic (Ga,Mn)As regions is not that of a true macrospin, but rather an ensemble average of the behavior of many nearly identical macrospins. This shows that the magnetic anisotropies of the local regions are consistent with the behavior extracted from macroscopic characterization. A fully electrically controllable read-write memory device out the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As is presented in chapter 6. The structure consists of four nanobars which are connected to a circular center region. The first part of the chapter describes the lithography realization of the device. We make use of the sub-micron TAMR probes to read-out the magnetization state of a 650 nm central disk. Four 200 nm wide nanobars are connected to the central disk and serve as source and drain of a spin-polarized current. With the spin-polarized current we are able to switch the magnetization of the central disk by means of current induced switching. Injecting polarized holes with a spin angular momentum into a magnetic region changes the magnetization direction of the region due to the p-d exchange interaction between localized Mn spins and itinerant holes. The magnetization of the central disk can be controlled fully electrically and it can serve as one bit memory element as part of a logic device. In chapter 7 we discuss the domain wall resistance in (Ga,Mn)As. At the transition from nanobars to central disk we are able to generate 90° and 180° domain walls and measure their resistance. The results presented from chapter 5 to 7 combined with the preexisting ultracompact (Ga,Mn)As-based memory cell of ref. [Papp 07c] are the building blocks needed to realize a fully functioning programmable logic device. The work of ref. [Papp 07c] makes use of lithographically engineered strain relaxation to produce a structure comprised of two nanobars with mutually orthogonal uniaxial easy axes, connected by a narrow constriction. Measurements showed that the resistance of the constriction depends on the relative orientation of the magnetization in the two bars. The programmable logic device consists of two central disks connected by a small constriction. The magnetization of the two central disks are used as the input bits and the constriction serves as the output during the logic operation. The concept is introduced in the end of chapter 6 and as an example for a logic operation an XOR gate is presented. The functionality of the programmable logic scheme presented here can be straightforwardly extended to produce multipurpose functional elements, where the given geometry can be used as various different computational elements depending on the number of input bits and the chosen electrical addressing. The realization of such a programmable logic device is shown in chapter 8, where we see that the constriction indeed can serve as a output of the logic operation because its resistance is dependent on the relative magnetization state of both disks. Contrary to ref. [Papp 07c], where the individual magnetic elements connected to the constriction only have two non-volatile magnetic states, each disk in our scheme connected to the constriction has four non-volatile magnetic states. Switching the magnetization of a central disk with an electrical current does not only change the TAMR read-out of the respective disk, it also changes the resistance of the constriction. The resistance polar plot of the constriction maps the relative magnetization states of the individual disks. The presented device design serves as an all-electrical, all-semiconductor logic element. It combines a memory cell and data processing in a single monolithic paradigm.