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Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are secreted multifunctional signaling proteins that play an important role during development, maintenance and regeneration of tissues and organs in almost all vertebrates and invertebrates. BMPs transmit their signals by binding to two types of serine-/threonine-kinase receptors. BMPs bind first to their high affinity receptor, thereby recruiting their low affinity receptor into the complex. This receptor assembly starts a Smad (Small mothers against decapentaplegic) protein signaling cascade which regulates the transcription of responsive genes. Up to date, only seven type I and five type II receptors are known for more than 30 ligands. Therefore, many BMP ligands can recruit more than one receptor subtype. Vice versa, receptors can bind to several ligands, indicating a highly promiscuous ligand-receptor interaction. This raises the following questions: (i) How are BMPs able to induce ligand-specific signals, despite forming complexes with identical receptor composition and (ii) how are they able to recognize and bind various binding partners in a highly specific manner. From the ligand’s point of view, heterodimeric BMPs are valuable tools for studying the interplay between different sets of receptors, thereby providing new insights into how the various BMP signals can be generated. This study describes the expression and purification of the heterodimers BMP-2/6 and -2/7 from E.coli cells. BIAcore interaction studies and various in vitro cell activity assays revealed that the generated heterodimers are biologically active. Furthermore, BMP-2/6 and -2/7 exhibit a higher biological activity in most of the cell assays compared to their homodimeric counterparts. In addition, the BMP type I receptor BMPR-IA is involved in heterodimeric BMP signaling. However, the usage of other type I receptor subtypes (e.g. ActR-I) building a heteromeric ligand-receptor type I complex as indicated in previous works could not be determined conclusively. Furthermore, BMP heterodimers seem to require only one type I receptor for signaling. From the receptors’ point of view, the BMP type I receptor BMPR-IA is a prime example for its promiscuous binding to different BMP ligands. The extracellular binding interface of BMPR-IA is mainly unfolded in its unbound form, requiring a large induced fit to adopt the conformation when bound to its ligand BMP-2. In order to unravel whether the binding promiscuity of BMPR-IA is linked to structural plasticity of its binding interface, the interaction of BMPR-IA bound to an antibody Fab fragment was investigated. The Fab fragment was selected because of its ability to recognize the BMP-2 binding epitope on BMPR-IA, thus neutralizing the BMP-2 mediated receptor activation. This study describes the crystal structure of the complex of the extracellular domain of BMPR-IA bound to the antibody Fab fragment AbyD1556. The crystal structure revealed that the contact surface of BMPR-IA overlaps extensively with the contact surface of BMPR-IA for BMP-2 interaction. Although the contact epitopes of BMPR-IA to both binding partners coincide, the three-dimensional structures of BMPR-IA in both complexes differ significantly. In contrast to the structural differences, alanine-scanning mutagenesis of BMPR-IA showed that the functional determinants for binding to both the antibody and BMP-2 are almost identical. Comparing the structures of BMPR-IA bound to BMP-2 or to the Fab AbyD1556 with the structure of unbound BMPR-IA revealed that binding of BMPR-IA to its interaction partners follows a selection fit mechanism, possibly indicating that the ligand promiscuity of BMPR-IA is inherently encoded by structural adaptability.
In dieser Arbeit sollte die Funktion von FGF-Signalen im Herzfeld und in der Entwicklung des Proepikards im Hühnerembryo untersucht werden. Fibroblasten-Wachstumsfaktoren (FGF) sind eine große Gruppe von Signalmolekülen und in eine Vielzahl von Entwicklungsprozessen involviert. Das Proepikard (PE), welches sich asymmetrisch auf dem rechten Sinushorn des Sinus venosus entwickelt, bildet die Grundlage des Koronargefäßsystems des Herzens. FGF-Liganden (FGF2, FGF10, FGF12) werden insbesondere in den epithelialen Zellen des Proepikards exprimiert, sowie an der sinomyokardialen Basis dieser embryonalen Progenitorpopulation. Die FGF-Rezeptoren (FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR4) weisen ein ähnliches Expressionsmuster auf und deren Inhibition, durch spezifische Antagonisten, war der Ausgangspunkt für die funktionelle Analyse der proepikardialen FGF-Signalaktivität. Die Inhibition von FGF-Signalen in vitro führt zu einem verringerten Wachstum sowie einer erhöhten Apoptoserate in proepikardialen Explantaten, die unter serumfreien Bedingungen kultiviert wurden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl der Ras/MAPK- als auch der PI3-Kinase-Signalweg, beides Bestandteile der FGF-Signaltransduktion, für das Wachstum und Überleben proepikardialer Zellen verantwortlich sind. Dagegen sind FGF-Signale nicht in die Etablierung proepikardialer Identität involviert, wie die Analyse der Expression etablierter proepikardialer Markergene wie TBX18, WT1 und TBX5 nach FGF-Inhibition zeigte. Dies konnte gleichfalls durch in vivo-Experimente gezeigt werden, in denen die rechtsseitige Inhibition von FGF zu einem retardierten Proepikardwachstum führte. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass die asymmetrische Apoptose in der sich transient entwickelnden linksseitigen Proepikardanlage auf eine frühe differentielle Expression von Apoptosegenen wie Caspase 2 zurückgeht. Diese asymmetrische Expression wird von FGF8 reguliert, wahrscheinlich als Teil eines frühen rechtsseitigen Signalweges, der Apoptose im rechten Sinushorn des kardialen Einflusstraktes verhindert. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die Expression der Hyaluronansynthase 2 (HAS2) in Abhängigkeit von FGF in der Herzfeldregion analysiert. Hyaluronansynthasen produzieren Hyaluronsäure, welches eine essentielle Komponente der extrazellulären Matrix ist. Es wurde in vivo gezeigt, dass die Expression von HAS2 im primären Herzfeld in gleicher Weise von FGF reguliert wird wie die des kardialen Transkriptionsfaktors NKX2.5. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit verdeutlichen, dass FGF während der frühen Entwicklung des Herzens und der Entstehung des Proepikards diverse Funktionen besitzt.
Der Wilms Tumor (WT), auch Nephroblastom genannt, ist einer der häufigsten bösartigen Tumoren im Kindesalter. Er entsteht aus embryonalem undifferenziertem Nierengewebe und tritt meist als unilateraler und sporadischer Tumor auf. In 10-15% der Wilms Tumoren finden sich WT1- und/oder CTNNB1-Mutationen. Während diese schon länger als genetische Ursachen des Nephroblastoms bekannt sind, wurde erst kürzlich WTX als drittes Gen beschrieben, welches eine Rolle in der Tumorentstehung spielt. Für einen Großteil der WT ist die genetische Ursache jedoch unklar. Da die bisher publizierten WTX-Mutationsraten auf Untersuchungen kleiner Gruppen basieren und sich stark unterscheiden, sollten in dieser Arbeit WTX-, CTNNB1- und WT1-Mutationen in einem großen WT-Set bestimmt werden. Verluste genetischen Materials in der WTX-Region traten in 17% der Fälle auf und waren zwischen den Geschlechtern gleich verteilt. Die Sequenzierung von WT-Proben zeigte, dass nur 2% von WTX-Punktmutationen betroffen sind. In weiteren 11,5% der Proben konnte keine WTX-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Die WTX-Veränderungen traten z. T. gemeinsam mit WT1- und/oder CTNNB1-Mutationen auf. Die unvollständige WTX-Deletion in einigen WT legte die Vermutung nahe, dass innerhalb eines Tumors eine Heterogenität in Bezug auf den WTX-Status möglich ist. Dieser Verdacht konnte durch die detaillierte Untersuchung verschiedener Regionen solcher Tumoren erhärtet werden: Hierzu wurden histologisch unterschiedliche Bereiche auf den Anteil einer WTX-Mutation bzw. eines WTX-LOH hin untersucht. Obwohl alle Regionen des jeweiligen Tumors einen kompletten LOH auf Chromosom 11 aufwiesen, waren die WTX-Veränderungen unterschiedlich stark ausgeprägt. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass WTX-Veränderungen keine notwendigen und frühen Ereignisse in der Tumorentstehung sind, sondern erst später auftreten und nur einen Teil der Tumorzellen betreffen können. Die Vermutung, dass WTX-Mutationen keinen direkten Einfluss auf die Tumorentwicklung und prognose haben, wird durch das Fehlen eines signifikanten Zusammenhangs zwischen WTX-Deletion bzw. WTX-Expression und den klinischen Eigenschaften der WT gestützt. Um die Rolle von Genen, die potentiell an der Entstehung und Entwicklung des Nephroblastoms beteiligt sind, zu untersuchen oder mögliche neue Therapiestrategien zu überprüfen, sind in vitro-Modelle nötig. Da ein solches für Wilms Tumoren nicht etabliert ist, wurden Primärkulturen aus verschiedenen WT-Proben angelegt. Kulturen aus Tumorgewebe von 12 Patienten mit unterschiedlichen genetischen Veränderungen konnten als echte Tumorzellen validiert werden. Zwei Zelltypen ließen sich morphologisch und immunhistochemisch unterscheiden: Zum einen runde, langsam wachsende Zellen mit Epithelcharakter und zum anderen fibroblastenähnliche Zellen, welche weniger differenziert waren und häufig für viele Passagen kultiviert werden konnten. Somit wurde ein Set verschiedener WT-Primärkulturen etabliert, welches nun für in vitro-Experimente zur Untersuchung grundlegender Mechanismen der WT-Entstehung oder zum Test neuer Therapieansätze eingesetzt werden kann. Frühere Microarray-Analysen deuteten auf eine Deregulation des Retinsäure (RA)-Signalwegs in fortgeschrittenen Wilms Tumoren hin. Diese Ergebnisse sollten in einem großen unabhängigen Proben-Set mittels Realtime-RT-PCR validiert werden. Eine Deregulation des RA-Signalwegs und die Überexpression von NMYC wurden für Tumoren der Hochrisikogruppe im Vergleich zu Tumoren mit geringem/mittlerem Risiko nachgewiesen. So stellte sich die Frage, ob Patienten mit fortgeschrittenem WT von einem Retinsäure-Einsatz in der Therapie profitieren könnten. Um dies zu beantworten, wurde der Effekt von verschiedenen Retinoiden auf WT-Primärkulturen untersucht. Die WT-Zellen wurden mit all-trans RA (ATRA), 9cisRA, dem synthetischen Retinoid Fenretinid (4HPR) und Kombinationen von ATRA bzw. 4HPR und einem HDAC-Inhibitor (SAHA) behandelt. Gene, welche in Hochrisiko-WT differenziell reguliert waren, wurden untersucht und zeigten nach RA-Behandlung eine entgegengesetzte Expression. In sechs der sieben verwendeten Primärkulturen wurde eine RA-vermittelte Proliferationsreduktion nachgewiesen. Für die Kombinationen von Retinoiden mit SAHA wurden keine synergistischen Effekte beobachtet. Während Fenretinid in den meisten Kulturen Apoptose induzierte, verursachten ATRA und 9cisRA morphologische Veränderungen, welche auf Differenzierungsvorgänge hindeuteten. Eine Microarray-Analyse ATRA-behandelter WT-Zellen zeigte die differenzielle Regulation vieler Gene, welche eine Rolle in der Bildung der extrazellulären Matrix oder bei Differenzierungsvorgängen von Knochen-, Knorpel-, Nerven- oder Muskelgewebe spielen. Diese Befunde bieten einen weiteren Hinweis darauf, dass Retinoide für den Einsatz in der Therapie des Nephroblastoms geeignet sein könnten.
Der Thiol:Disulfid-Redox Metabolismus und der Blaulichtrezeptor Lmo0799 von Listeria monocytogenes
(2010)
Der Thiol-Redox-Metabolismus, der in allen lebenden Zellen zu finden ist, wirkt oxidativem Stress entgegen. Des Weiteren dient er auch der Aufrechterhaltung der intrazellulären Thiol:Disulfid-Balance, die wiederum für die Funktion vieler Proteine essentiell ist. Auch stellt er Reduktionsäquivalente für die Produktion von Desoxyribonucleotiden für die DNA-Synthese bereit und hilft oxidierte Proteine zu reparieren. Der Thiol:Disulfid-Redox-Metabolismus (TDRM) unterscheidet sich von anderen metabolischen Netzwerken dadurch, dass keine Kohlenstoff- oder Stickstoffbindungen verändert werden. In vielen Fällen beinhaltet er die reversible Oxidation zweier benachbarter Cysteinreste im entsprechenden Protein, was zur Ausbildung von Disulfidbrücken führt. Da ein totaler Ausfall der GSH-Synthese einen geringeren Effekt zu haben schien als ein teilweiser, wurden DNA-Microarray-Transkriptomanalysen der ΔgshF-Mutante durchgeführt. Es wurden rund 750 Gene als signifikant reguliert (p < 0,05, Fold-change <0,5 bzw. >2) identifiziert. Da die am stärksten regulierten Gene von besonderem Interesse waren, wurden die Ausschlussgrenzen auf <0,2 bzw. >5 –fach reguliert heraufgesetzt. Diese Parameter trafen auf 92 Gene zu, davon 41 durch GSH-Mangel herauf-regulierte (d.h. die mRNA-Menge war in der Mutante höher als im Wildtyp) und 51 herunter-regulierte. Auffällig war, dass die Expression vieler Gene, welche durch den Stress-Sigmafaktor SigB reguliert werden, bei Fehlen von GSH verändert war. Zu den am stärksten (sechs- bis elffach) herauf-regulierten Genen zählen lmo0135-7, sie codieren für einen putativen Oligopeptidtransporter. Die Vermutung lag nahe, dass dieser evtl. GSH aus dem Medium in die Zellen transportieren könnte. Man kann also davon ausgehen, dass GSH von Listeria aktiv aus dem Medium aufgenommen wird und dass die Effekte, die im Versuch ohne zusätzliches GSH auftreten, direkt auf das Fehlen von GSH zurückzuführen sind. Zusammengefasst zeigte sich, dass ein Ausfall der GSH-Synthese in Listeria keinen auffälligen Phänotyp zeigt. Es wurden jedoch sehr umfangreiche Veränderungen des Transkriptionsprofils beobachtet, offenbar konnten die Bakterien dadurch eine neue zelluläre Homöostase erreichen. Physiologische Mengen von GSH im Medium komplementierten den Ausfall der GSH-Synthese fast vollständig. Im Laufe dieser Analysen fiel das Augenmerk auf ein Gen mit unbekannter Funktion, lmo0799, das in der ΔgshF-Mutante als deutlich heraufreguliert identifiziert worden war. Eine nähere in-silico-Analyse ergab deutliche Homologien des Lmo0799 Proteins zu einem Blaulicht-photorezeptor, YtvA, von Bacillus subtilis. Da ein Zusammenhang mit dem TDRM aufgrund der Microarray-Analysen mehr als wahrscheinlich schien, richtete sich das Augenmerk verstärkt auf die Charakterisierung des putativen Blaulichtrezeptors Lmo0799. Es wurde eine In-Frame-Deletionsmutante in lmo0799 hergestellt, die mit Δlmo0799-Mutante bezeichnet wurde. Darin ist das ursprünglich 253 Aminosäuren (AS) große Genprodukt von lmo0799 auf sieben AS verkürzt, ohne den Promotor- oder Terminatorbereich bzw. umliegende Gene zu verändern. Parallel wurde begonnen, Versuche zum Einfluss von Licht (blau, λ=455nm bzw. rot, λ=625nm) in vivo und in vitro auf L. monocytogenes durchzuführen. Versuche mittels qRT-PCR wurden durchgeführt um die genaue Wirkweise von Lmo0799 näher aufzuklären. Dazu wurden Testgene aus verschiedenen Regulons ausgewählt und deren Transkription in Proben von Wildtyp und Δlmo0799-Mutante mit und ohne blauem bzw. rotem Licht sowie mit und ohne Salzstress gemessen. Dabei zeigte sich, dass vor allem die Transkription von Genen des SigB-Regulons, das für die allgemeine Stressantwort in Listerien zuständig ist, durch Licht moduliert wurde. Die Wirkung von Blaulicht hing in hohem Maße von der Anwesenheit von Lmo0799 ab, welches wahrscheinlich eine Komponente des „Stressosoms“ von Listeria darstellt. Die Lichtregulation betraf auch die Internaline A und B, deren Transkription durch Belichtung stark erhöht wurde. Infektionsversuche mit blau belichteten bzw. dunkel gehaltenen Wildtyp- bzw. Δlmo0799-Bakterien an humanen Caco-2 Enterozyten zeigten, dass wildtypische Listerien nach Bestrahlung mit blauem Licht ihre Invasionsrate verdoppelten, während die Δlmo0799-Listerien auf Niveau der Dunkelkontrolle blieben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass L. monocytogenes (und wohl auch die anderen Listeria-Arten) in Lmo0799 einen funktionalen Blaulichtrezeptor besitzt, der eine wichtige Rolle in der Vermittlung von Stressreizen via SigB spielt und auch die Motilität und Virulenz moduliert. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass auch rotes Licht die Transkription zahlreicher durch Blaulicht regulierter Gene beeinflusst. Der molekulare Mechanismus konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nicht mehr aufgeklärt werden.
Das pleiotrope Zytokin TNF (tumor necrosis factor) kann an den TNF-Rezeptor 1 (TNFR1) und den TNF-Rezeptor 2 (TNFR2) binden und mit deren Hilfe seine biologischen Funktionen über verschiedene Signalwege, wie z.B. NFB- und MAPK-Aktivierung bzw. Apop¬toseinduktion, vermitteln. In früheren Arbeiten konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Aktivierung des TNFR2 zur proteasomalen Degradation des Adaterproteins TRAF2 führt und dadurch die TNFR1-induzierte Apoptose verstärkt wird. TWEAK (tumor necrosis like weak inducer of apoptosis), das ebenfalls der TNF-Ligandenfamilie angehört und die Interaktion mit dessen Rezeptor Fn14 (fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14), der wie der TNFR2 zur Untergruppe der TRAF-bindenden Rezeptoren der TNF-Rezeptorfamilie gehört, zeigten in verschiedenen Arbeiten auch eine TRAF2-degradierende Wirkung. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte nun gezeigt werden, dass dies auch im Falle des TWEAK/Fn14-Systems mit einem verstärkenden Effekt auf die TNFR1-vermittelte Apoptose einhergeht. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass TWEAK zusätzlich auch die TNFR1-induzierte Nekrose verstärkt, die den Zelltod durch andere Mechanismen als bei der Apoptose induziert. Von anderen Arbeiten unserer Gruppe war bekannt, dass lösliches TWEAK (sTWEAK) und membranständiges TWEAK (mTWEAK) bezüglich der TRAF2-Depletion wirkungs¬gleich sind. Da der apoptotische Fn14-TNFR1-„crosstalk“ auf der Depletion von TRAF2-Komplexen beruht wurden auch keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen sTWEAK und mTWEAK in Bezug auf die Verstärkung der TNFR1-induzierten Apoptose beobachtet. Interessanter¬weise zeigte sich in der vorliegenden Arbeit jedoch, dass sTWEAK den klassischen NFB-Signalweg gar nicht bzw. nur schwach aktiviert, wohingegen mTWEAK diesen stark induziert. Bei der Aktivierung des alternativen NFB-Signalweges hingegen ließen sich keine Unterschiede zwischen sTWEAK und mTWEAK erkennen. Die Aktivierung eines Signalweges wird also durch die Oligomerisierung des Liganden nicht moduliert, demgegenüber aber erwies sich die Aktivierung eines anderen Signalweges als stark abhängig von der Liganden-Oligomerisierung. Vor dem Hintergrund, dass das Adapterprotein TRAF1 (TNF-receptor-associated factor 1) Heterotrimere mit TRAF2 bildet, wurde weiterhin untersucht, ob dieses Molekül einen Einfluss auf die Aktivität der TWEAK-induzierten Signalwege hat. Tatsächlich zeigte sich in TRAF1-exprimie¬renden Zellen eine Verstärkung der TWEAK-induzierten Aktivierung des klassischen NFB-Signalweges Zukünftige Studien müssen nun aufklären, inwieweit die hier gefundenen Mecha-nismen das Zusammenspiel von TNF und TWEAK in vivo bestimmen.
Heritabilities and repeatabilities are presented for various behavioural attributes affecting foraging performance and fitness in Aquarius (Gerris) remigis (Heteroptera: Gerridae) females. These behavioural attributes were patch choice, foraging success, capture accuracy, and measures of mobility, activity, skittishness and aggressiveness. Most heritabilities were not significantly different from zero, which may be related to the low sampIe size. Conclusions as to the potential of direct selection on behaviour in this species were consequently limited. In contrast, with a few exceptions (capture accuracy, foraging success), most repeatabilities were significant and at times high (range=O'22-O'79), indicating consistent, stereotypical individual behaviour. Tbe Iife history or reproductive state of the daughter generation individuals signifieantly affected the magnitude of the repeatabilities as weil as the mean values of many of the variables (notably mobility and aggressiveness), the latter in a manner consistent with field observations. This indicates that the state of the organism affects the general environmental variance, thus contributing to the discrepancies between the repeatabilities and the heritabilities obtained. It is suggested that common physiological proeesses (e.g. hormones) may underlie several of the behavioural attributes examined, resulting in possible pleiotropie effects and eonstraints on selection in a heterogeneous environment. It is further suggested that field studies of selection on behavioural attributes may be a more fruitful approach in this species, whose suitability for genetic analysis is limited.
Foraging behavior is a particularly fascinating topic within the studies of social insects. Decisions made by individuals have effects not only on the individual level, but on the colony level as well. Social information available through foraging in a group modulates individual preferences and shapes the foraging pattern of a colony. Identifying parameters influencing foraging behavior in leaf-cutting ants is especially intriguing because they do not harvest for themselves, but for their symbiotic fungus which in turn influences their plant preferences after the incorporation of the substrate. To learn about the substrates’ unsuitability for the fungus, ants need to be able to identify the incorporated substrate and associate it with detrimental effects on the fungus. Odor is an important plant characteristic known to be used as recognition key outside the nest in the context of foraging. Chapter 1 shows that foragers are able to recall information about the unsuitability of a substrate through odor alone and consequently reject the substrate, which leads to the conclusion that inside the nest, odor might be enough to indentify incorporated substrate. Identification of plant species is a key factor in the foraging success of leaf-cutting ants as they harvest a multitude of different plant species in a diverse environment and host plant availability and suitability changes throughout the year. Fixed plant preferences of individuals through innate tendencies are therefore only one factor influencing foraging decisions. On the individual as well as the colony level, foraging patterns are flexible and a result of an intricate interplay between the different members involved in the harvesting process: foragers, gardeners and the symbiotic fungus. In chapter 2 I identified several conditions necessary for naïve foragers to learn about the unsuitability of substrate inside the nest. In order to exchange of information about the unsuitability of a substrate, the plant in question must be present in the fungus garden. Foragers can learn without own foraging experience and even without experiencing the effects of the substrate on the fungus, solely through the presence of experienced gardeners. The presence of experienced foragers alone on the other hand is not enough to lower the acceptance of substrate by naïve foragers in the presence of naïve gardeners, even if experienced foragers make up the majority of the workforce inside the nest. Experienced foragers are also able to reverse their previous negative experience and start accepting the substrate again. The individual behavior of foragers and gardeners with different experiential backgrounds in the presence of suitable or unsuitable substrate inside the fungus chamber was investigated in chapter 3 to shed some light on possible mechanisms involved in the flow of information about substrate suitability from the fungus to the ants. Gardeners as well as foragers are involved in the leaf processing and treatment of the applied leaf patches on the fungus. If the plant material is unsuitable, significantly more ants treat the plant patches, but foragers are less active overall. Contacts between workers initiated by either gardeners or foragers occur significantly more frequent and last longer if the substrate is unsuitable. Even though experienced gardeners increase naïve foragers’ contact rates and duration with other workers in the presence of suitable plant patches, naïve foragers show no differences in the handling of the plant patches. This suggests that foragers gain information about plant suitability not only indirectly through the gardening workers, but might also be able to directly evaluate the effects of the substrate on the fungus themselves. Outside the nest, foragers influence each other the trail (chapter 4). Foraging in a group and the presence of social information is a decisive factor in the substrate choice of the individual and leads to a distinct and consentaneous colony response when encountering unfamiliar or unsuitable substrates. As leaf-cutting ants harvest different plant species simultaneously on several trails, foragers gain individual experiences concerning potential host plants. Preferences might vary among individuals of the same colony to the degree that foragers on the same trail perceive a certain substrate as either suitable or unsuitable. If the majority of foragers on the trail perceives one of the currently harvested substrates as unsuitable, naïve foragers lower their acceptance within 4 hours. In the absence of a cue in the fungus, naïve foragers harvesting by themselves still eventually (within 6 hours) reject the substrate as they encounter experienced gardeners during visits to the nest within foraging bouts. As foraging trails can be up to 100 m long and foragers spend a considerable amount of time away from the nest, learning indirectly from experienced foragers on the trail accelerates the distribution of information about substrate suitability. The level of rejection of a formerly unsuitable substrate after eight hours of foraging by naïve foragers correlates with the average percentage of unladen experienced foragers active on the trail. This suggests that unladen experienced foragers might actively contact laden naïve workers transmitting information about the unsuitability of the load they carry. Results from experiments were I observed individual laden foragers on their way back to the nest backed up this assumption as individuals were antennated and received bites into the leaf disk they carried. Individuals were contacted significantly more often by nestmates that perceived the carried leaf disk as unsuitable due to previous experience than by nestmates without this experience (chapter 6). Leaf-cutting ants constantly evaluate, learn and re-evaluate the suitability of harvested substrate and adjust their foraging activity accordingly. The importance of the different sources of information within the colony and their effect on the foraging pattern of the colony depend on the presence or absence of each of them as e.g. experienced foragers have a bigger influence on the plant preferences of naïve foragers in the absence of a cue in the fungus garden.
Applying microarray‐based techniques to study gene expression patterns: a bio‐computational approach
(2010)
The regulation and maintenance of iron homeostasis is critical to human health. As a constituent of hemoglobin, iron is essential for oxygen transport and significant iron deficiency leads to anemia. Eukaryotic cells require iron for survival and proliferation. Iron is part of hemoproteins, iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins, and other proteins with functional groups that require iron as a cofactor. At the cellular level, iron uptake, utilization, storage, and export are regulated at different molecular levels (transcriptional, mRNA stability, translational, and posttranslational). Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) 1 and 2 post-transcriptionally control mammalian iron homeostasis by binding to iron-responsive elements (IREs), conserved RNA stem-loop structures located in the 5’- or 3‘- untranslated regions of genes involved in iron metabolism (e.g. FTH1, FTL, and TFRC). To identify novel IRE-containing mRNAs, we integrated biochemical, biocomputational, and microarray-based experimental approaches. Gene expression studies greatly contribute to our understanding of complex relationships in gene regulatory networks. However, the complexity of array design, production and manipulations are limiting factors, affecting data quality. The use of customized DNA microarrays improves overall data quality in many situations, however, only if for these specifically designed microarrays analysis tools are available. Methods In this project response to the iron treatment was examined under different conditions using bioinformatical methods. This would improve our understanding of an iron regulatory network. For these purposes we used microarray gene expression data. To identify novel IRE-containing mRNAs biochemical, biocomputational, and microarray-based experimental approaches were integrated. IRP/IRE messenger ribonucleoproteins were immunoselected and their mRNA composition was analysed using an IronChip microarray enriched for genes predicted computationally to contain IRE-like motifs. Analysis of IronChip microarray data requires specialized tool which can use all advantages of a customized microarray platform. Novel decision-tree based algorithm was implemented using Perl in IronChip Evaluation Package (ICEP). Results IRE-like motifs were identified from genomic nucleic acid databases by an algorithm combining primary nucleic acid sequence and RNA structural criteria. Depending on the choice of constraining criteria, such computational screens tend to generate a large number of false positives. To refine the search and reduce the number of false positive hits, additional constraints were introduced. The refined screen yielded 15 IRE-like motifs. A second approach made use of a reported list of 230 IRE-like sequences obtained from screening UTR databases. We selected 6 out of these 230 entries based on the ability of the lower IRE stem to form at least 6 out of 7 bp. Corresponding ESTs were spotted onto the human or mouse versions of the IronChip and the results were analysed using ICEP. Our data show that the immunoselection/microarray strategy is a feasible approach for screening bioinformatically predicted IRE genes and the detection of novel IRE-containing mRNAs. In addition, we identified a novel IRE-containing gene CDC14A (Sanchez M, et al. 2006). The IronChip Evaluation Package (ICEP) is a collection of Perl utilities and an easy to use data evaluation pipeline for the analysis of microarray data with a focus on data quality of custom-designed microarrays. The package has been developed for the statistical and bioinformatical analysis of the custom cDNA microarray IronChip, but can be easily adapted for other cDNA or oligonucleotide-based designed microarray platforms. ICEP uses decision tree-based algorithms to assign quality flags and performs robust analysis based on chip design properties regarding multiple repetitions, ratio cut-off, background and negative controls (Vainshtein Y, et al., 2010).
Scents as Floral Defence : Impact on Species and Communities, Mechanisms and Ecological Consequences
(2010)
Floral scents are compositions of diverse volatile substances. Despite the chemical complexity, the interpretation of their ecological relevance was mostly confined to the attractive function facilitating interactions with pollinators. However, the negative impact on plants’ reproduction by non-pollinating flower visitors is pronounced and demands floral adaptations that exclude antagonists. The aim of this dissertation was to explore the defensive properties of floral odours and to imbed them into ecological contexts. The thesis covered four scopes: the scents’ impact on individual species and on flower-visitor communities, the mechanisms that explain the dual function of floral volatiles (attraction and defence), and the ecological consequences of missing defences for plants and pollinators. The most important floral antagonists that are known to reduce the reproductive fitness of plants were identified and their responses towards floral scents were examined. We found that representatives of non‐pollinating florivores (bush crickets), predators that lure for pollinators (spiders), and microorganisms that potentially colonize petals were repelled, deterred or inhibited in their growth by floral secondary metabolites. An earlier study revealed the same effect on nectar thieving ants. These experimental studies clearly demonstrate that scents universally serve as floral defences that have the potential to reduce or even prevent the visitation and exploitation of flowers by these antagonists. Within diverse communities, we tested whether species‐specific responses to odours reflect the structure of naturally occurring flower-visitor interactions in order to examine the ecological importance of defensive floral scents. On three Hawaiian Islands, ant-flower interactions involving co-occurring native and introduced plants were observed. Ants were historically absent from the geographically isolated Hawaiian archipelago. Thus, we hypothesized that native Hawaiian plants lack floral features that exclude ants and therefore would be heavily exploited by introduced, invasive ants. We quantified the residual interaction strength of each pair of ant/plant species as the deviation of the observed interaction frequency from a null-model prediction based on available nectar sugar in a local plant community and local ant activity at sugar baits. As predicted, flowers of plants that are endemic or indigenous to Hawaii were stronger exploited by ants than flowers of co- occurring introduced plants, which share an evolutionary history with ants. We showed experimentally that the absence of ants on flowers of most introduced and few native plants species was due to morphological barriers and/or repellent floral scents, examined in a mobile olfactometer. Analysis of floral volatiles, however, revealed no consistent ant- repellent “syndrome”, probably due to the high chemical variability within the floral scent bouquets. On a fallow land in Germany, we linked the responses of receivers (flower visitors) towards signals (flower scent) with the structure of a highly diverse natural flower-insect network. For each interaction, we defined link temperature – a newly developed metric – as the deviation of the observed interaction strength from neutrality, assuming that animals randomly interact with flowers. Link temperature was positively correlated to the specific visitors' responses to floral scents. Thus, communication between plants and consumers via phytochemical signals reflects a significant part of the microstructure in a complex network. Negative as well as positive responses towards floral scents contributed to these results, where individual experience was important, apart from innate behaviour. The demonstration of the contrasting functions of floral scents that control the visitor spectrum of flowers represents the first evidence that floral scents act as filters allowing access to some flower visitors but simultaneously exclude others. These findings raise the central question of this thesis: what evolutionary mechanism explains the dual function of floral scents? The view of flower visitors as mutualistic and antagonistic agents considers primarily the interest of plants. A classification emphasizing the consumer’s point of view, however, may be more useful when considering adaptations of animals to flower visits. Therefore, we introduced a novel classification that acknowledges the consumers’ interest in the interaction: some animals evolved an obligate dependence on floral resources, others use nectar and pollen as supplement to their diet and are thus regarded as facultative flower visitors. In a meta-analysis covering 18 studies on the responses of animals to floral scents, we assigned the animals to the categories of obligate or facultative flower visitors. Their responses to floral scents were compared. On average, obligate flower visitors, often corresponding to pollinators, were attracted to floral scent compounds. In contrast, facultative and mainly antagonistic visitors were strongly repelled by flower odours. The findings confirm that floral scents have a dual function both as attractive and defensive cues. Whether an animal depends on floral resources determines its response to these signals, suggesting that obligate flower visitors evolved a tolerance against primarily defensive compounds. These findings were confirmed in an experimental study. We conclude that floral scents protect flowers against visitors that would otherwise reduce the reproductive success of plants. In Hawaii, where flowers do not have defensive means against ants, we studied the impact of ants on the pollination effectiveness of endemic and introduced bees and on the fruit set of an endemic tree Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae). Ants were dominant nectar-consumers that mostly depleted the nectar of visited inflorescences. Accordingly, the visitation frequency, duration, and consequently the pollinator effectiveness of nectar-foraging bees strongly decreased on ant-visited flowers, whereas pollen-collecting bees remained largely unaffected by ants. Overall, endemic bees (Hylaeus spp.) were much poorer pollinators than introduced honeybees (Apis mellifera). The average net effect of ants on pollination of M. polymorpha was neutral, corresponding to a similar fruit set of ant-visited and ant-free inflorescences. A second Hawaiian plant species, Vaccinium reticulatum (Ericaceae), was visited by the caterpillars of an introduced plume moth (Stenoptilodes littoralis) that destroyed buds and flowers of this species. The ants’ presence on flowers strongly reduced flower parasitism by the caterpillars and consequently decreased the loss of flowers and buds. This is, to our knowledge, the first documented mutualism between invasive ants and an endemic plant species in Hawaii. Thus, ants that have been shown to be detrimental flower visitors elsewhere, had neutral (M. polymorpha) or even positive (V. reticulatum) effects on endemic Hawaiian plants. However, their overall negative effect on the Hawaiian flora and fauna should not be disregarded.
Resin, a sticky sap emitting terpenoids and other volatiles, is produced by various plant species to seal wounds and protect themselves against herbivores and microbes. Among several other insects, bees have evolved the surprising ability to handle the repellent plant sap and use it to construct and defend their nests. Whereas the collection of pollen and nectar has been intensively studied in bees, resin collection has received only little attention. The aim of this dissertation was to better understand how the physiological and chemical properties of resin and resin-derived compounds (terpenes) affect the ecology of stingless bees. I therefore asked why, where and how stingless bees of Borneo (seven study-species), Australia (eight) and Costa Rica (27) collect and process plant resins, addressing the importance of a largely neglected resource not only for building and defensive properties, but also for the bees’ chemical diversity. Stingless bees are highly opportunistic resin foragers with all species collecting resin from a similar set of tree species. They locate and/or recognize resin sources on the basis of several volatile mono- and sesquiterpenes. I found that different bee species and even colonies significantly varied in the amount of resin collected. Predator attack (e.g., by ants) had the strongest affect on resin intake, whereas manual nest destruction only slightly increased the number of resin foragers. Resin is used to build, maintain and defend nests, but also as source for chemical compounds (terpenes) which stingless bees include in their surface profiles (chemical profiles). They directly transfer resin-derived compounds to their body surfaces (cuticular terpenes), but only include a subset (8 %) of the large number (>> 1000) of terpenes found in tree resins. This phenomenon can only be explained by a hitherto unknown ability to filter environmentally derived compounds which results in species-specific terpene profiles and thus in an increased chemical heterogeneity among species. Moreover, due to the addition of resin-derived substances the diversity of compounds on the bees’ body surfaces by far exceeds the chemical diversity of profiles in other hymenopterans. Because stingless bees filter but do not modify resin-derived compounds, species from Borneo, Australia and Costa Rica all resemble the characteristic resin of typical trees in their regions of origin. This chemical similarity reveals a strong correlation between the diversity of tree resins and the diversity of cuticular terpenes among stingless bees in a given habitat. Because different tree species are found in different tropical regions, the chemical composition of tree resins varies between tropical regions as does the composition of cuticular terpenes in bee species from these regions. Cuticular terpenes are however most common among stingless from Borneo, with 100 % of species studied having resin-derived terpenes in their chemical profiles. They are least common in Costa Rica, with only 40 % of species having terpenes. Likewise, resin collection was found to be highest in Tetragonilla collina colonies of Borneo where occasionally up to 90 % of foragers collected resin. By contrast, resin collection was only performed by 10 % of foragers of a given colony in Australia and by a maximum of 40 % in Costa Rica. The dominance of resin and resin-derived compounds in the chemical ecology of bees from Borneo may mirror the dominance of a particular Southeast Asian tree family: the highly resinous dipterocarps. Such a correlation between the chemistry of bees and the chemistry of tree resins therefore underlines the close relationship between stingless bees and the trees of their habitat. Cuticular terpenes are assumed to protect bees against predators and/or microbes. Sesquiterpenes, a specific group of terpenes, most vary between species and impair inter-specific aggression by reducing aggressive behavior in species without sesquiterpenes, thereby providing a novel mechanism to achieve interspecific tolerance among insects. Reduced interspecific aggression may also be an important factor enabling the non-aggressive aggregation of nests from stingless bee colonies of up to four different species, because such aggregations frequently comprise both species with and species without sesquiterpenes. Given its various functions, resin represents a highly important resource for stingless bees which directly affects their chemical ecology, defensive properties and inter-specific communication. It remains to be investigated how the bees influence the resin-derived terpene profiles on their body surface and in their nests, particularly how they manage to exclude entire groups of terpenes. Whether bees actually need a high diversity of different resin sources and therefore tree species to maintain the homeostasis of their colonies or whether they would do equally well with a limited amount of resin sources available, should also be addressed in future studies. Answers to this question will directly impair bee and forest management in (sub)tropical regions.