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Untersuchung der Rolle von Rhodopsin 7 und Cryptochrom im Sehprozess von Drosophila melanogaster
(2015)
Ausgangspunkt für die Detektion von Licht ist im gesamten Tierreich die Absorption von Photonen durch photorezeptive Proteine, die sogenannten Opsine und in geringerem Ausmaß die Typ 1 Cryptochrome. Die Taufliege Drosophila melanogaster besitzt sechs eingehend charakterisierte, auch als Rhodopsine bezeichnete Opsine (Rh1-Rh6) und ein Cryptochrom (CRY). Neben den Ocellen und den Hofbauer-Buchner Äuglein werden die Rhodopsine in erster Linie in den Photorezeptorzellen der Komplexaugen, den Hauptorganen der Lichtperzeption exprimiert, wo sie der Vermittlung der visuellen Wahrnehmung dienen. Basierend auf Sequenzvergleichen wurde im Jahr 2000 ein neues Protein namens Rh7 zur Gruppe der Drosophila Opsine hinzugefügt. Bis heute fehlt allerdings jeglicher experimentelle Beleg für die photorezeptive Funktion dieses Proteins.
Im Gegensatz dazu wird Cryptochrom in erster Linie in einigen Uhrneuronen des Drosophila Gehirns exprimiert, wo es diesen Neuronen die Fähigkeit zur Lichtdetektion verleiht und das Photoentrainment der inneren Uhr lenkt. Neueren Untersuchungen zu folge spielt CRY allerdings auch bei der visuellen Wahrnehmung der Augen eine Rolle.
Die vorliegende Arbeit zielte nun darauf ab die potentielle Funktion von Rh7 als neuen Photorezeptor in Drosophila sowie die Rolle von CRY bei der visuellen Lichtperzeption zu untersuchen.
Die Aufnahmen der Elektroretinogramme (ERGs) von transgenen Fliegen, die Rh7 anstelle von oder zusammen mit dem dominanten Photorezeptor Rh1 in den Komplexaugen exprimieren, zeigen, dass Rh7 die Phototransduktionskaskade bei Belichtung mit Weißlicht nicht aktivieren kann. Die Abwesenheit von Rh7 sorgt allerdings trotzdem für eine Beeinträchtigung der lichtinduzierten Antwort der Rezeptorzellen im Komplexauge. So zeigen die Intensitäts-Response Kurven der ERG Rezeptorpotentialamplitude von rh7 Knockout-Fliegen unter Weißlicht niedriger und mittlerer Intensität nach einer anfänglichen Dunkeladaptation von 15min eine insgesamt, im Vergleich zur Kontrolle erhöhte Rezeptorpotentialamplitude. Der Verlauf dieser Kurven deutet außerdem darauf hin, dass die Zunahme der Rezeptorpotentialamplitude mit steigender Lichtintensität größer wird. Zudem
zeigt das Aktionsspektrum für die Rezeptorpotentialamplitude der rh7 Knockout-Fliegen, dass diese Empfindlichkeitszunahme im gesamten Bereich von 370-648nm auftritt. Diese Beeinträchtigung scheint jedoch zu fehlen, wenn die Fliegen vor Experimentbeginn nur 1min dunkeladaptiert wurden, oder wenn intensives Blaulicht zur Belichtung verwendet wird. Des weiteren ist auch das 4s nach Ende des Lichtpulses im ERG gemessene Nachpotential bei fehlendem Rh7 reduziert.
Zusammengenommen deuten diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Rh7, wenn auch nicht als Photorezeptor, bei Belichtung mit Weißlicht niedriger und mittlerer Intensität die Lichtantwort in den Rezeptorzellen des Komplexauges in Abhängigkeit von Intensität und Adaptationszustand beeinflusst und dass dieser Einfluss scheinbar nicht durch Licht eines eng begrenzten Wellenlängenbereichs induziert wird. Des weiteren legt die Untersuchung des ERG Nachpotentials nahe, dass Rh7 möglicherweise für eine normale Beendigung der Lichtantwort benötigt wird. Die allgemeine Funktion von Rh7 als Photorezeptor in Drosophila sowie die Eigenschaften der endogenen Funktion von Rh7 werden diskutiert.
Unabhängig davon wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit auch gezeigt, dass Fliegen ohne CRY zwar nach 15-minütiger, nicht jedoch nach 1-minütiger Dunkeladaptation bei Belichtung mit Weißlicht niedriger Intensität eine insgesamt geringere ERG Rezeptorpotentialamplitude aufweisen. Dies könnte auf eine Beeinträchtigung der Dunkeladaptationsprozesse bei Abwesenheit von CRY hindeuten.
Organisms have evolved endogenous clocks which allow them to organize their behavior, metabolism and physiology according to the periodically changing environmental conditions on earth. Biological rhythms that are synchronized to daily changes in environment are governed by the so-called circadian clock. Since decades, chronobiologists have been investigating circadian clocks in various model organisms including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, which was used in the present thesis.
Anatomically, the circadian clock of the fruitfly consists of about 150 neurons in the lateral and dorsal protocerebrum, which are characterized by their position, morphology and neurochemistry. Some of these neurons had been previously shown to contain either one or several neuropeptides, which are thought to be the main signaling molecules used by the clock. The best investigated of these neuropeptides is the Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF), which had been shown to constitute a synchronizing signal between clock neurons as well as an output factor of the clock.
In collaboration with various coworkers, I investigated the roles of three other clock expressed neuropeptides for the generation of behavioral rhythms and the partly published, partly unpublished data are presented in this thesis. Thereby, I focused on the Neuropeptide F (NPF), short Neuropeptide F (sNPF) and the Ion Transport Peptide (ITP). We show that part of the neuropeptide composition within the clock network seems to be conserved among different Drosophila species. However, the PDF expression pattern in certain neurons varied in species deriving from lower latitudes compared to higher latitudes. Together with findings on the behavioral level provided by other people, these data suggest that different species may have altered certain properties of their clocks - like the neuropeptide expression in certain neurons - in order to adapt their behavior to different habitats.
We then investigated locomotor rhythms in Drosophila melanogaster flies, in which neuropeptide circuits were genetically manipulated either by cell ablation or RNA interference (RNAi). We found that none of the investigated neuropeptides seems to be of equal importance for circadian locomotor rhythms as PDF. PDF had been previously shown to be necessary for rhythm maintenance in constant darkness (DD) as well as for the generation of morning (M) activity and for the right phasing of the evening (E) activity in entrained conditions. We now demonstrate that NPF and ITP seem to promote E activity in entrained conditions, but are clearly not the only factors doing so. In addition, ITP seems to reduce nighttime activity. Further, ITP and possibly also sNPF constitute weak period shortening components in DD, thereby opposing the effect of PDF. However, neither NPF or ITP, nor sNPF seem to be necessary in the clock neurons for maintaining rhythmicity in DD.
It had been previously suggested that PDF is released rhythmically from the dorsal projection terminals. Now we discovered a rhythm in ITP immunostaining in the dorsal projection terminals of the ITP+ clock neurons in LD, suggesting a rhythm in peptide release also in the case of ITP. Rhythmic release of both ITP and PDF seems to be important to maintain rhythmic behavior in DD, since constantly high levels of PDF and ITP in the dorsal protocerebrum lead to behavioral arrhythmicity.
Applying live-imaging techniques we further demonstrate that sNPF acts in an inhibitory way on few clock neurons, including some that are also activated by PDF, suggesting that it acts as signaling molecule within the clock network and has opposing effects to PDF. NPF did only evoke very little inhibitory responses in very few clock neurons, suggesting that it might rather be used as a clock output factor. We were not able to apply the same live-imaging approach for the investigation of the clock neuron responsiveness to ITP, but overexpression of ITP with various driver lines showed that the peptide most likely acts mainly in clock output pathways rather than inter-clock neuron communication.
Taking together, I conclude that all investigated peptides contribute to the control of locomotor rhythms in the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. However, this control is in most aspects dominated by the actions of PDF and rather only fine-tuned or complemented by the other peptides. I assume that there is a high complexity in spatial and temporal action of the different neuropeptides in order to ensure correct signal processing within the clock network as well as clock output.
Members of the Diaphanous (Dia) protein family are key regulators of fundamental actin driven cellular processes, which are conserved from yeast to humans. Researchers have uncovered diverse physiological roles in cell morphology, cell motility, cell polarity, and cell division, which are involved in shaping cells into tissues and organs. The identification of numerous binding partners led to substantial progress in our understanding of the differential functions of Dia proteins. Genetic approaches and new microscopy techniques allow important new insights into their localization, activity, and molecular principles of regulation.
Background
Myc proteins are essential regulators of animal growth during normal development, and their deregulation is one of the main driving factors of human malignancies. They function as transcription factors that (in vertebrates) control many growth- and proliferation-associated genes, and in some contexts contribute to global gene regulation.
Results
We combine chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIPseq) and RNAseq approaches in Drosophila tissue culture cells to identify a core set of less than 500 Myc target genes, whose salient function resides in the control of ribosome biogenesis. Among these genes we find the non-coding snoRNA genes as a large novel class of Myc targets. All assayed snoRNAs are affected by Myc, and many of them are subject to direct transcriptional activation by Myc, both in Drosophila and in vertebrates. The loss of snoRNAs impairs growth during normal development, whereas their overexpression increases tumor mass in a model for neuronal tumors.
Conclusions
This work shows that Myc acts as a master regulator of snoRNP biogenesis. In addition, in combination with recent observations of snoRNA involvement in human cancer, it raises the possibility that Myc’s transforming effects are partially mediated by this class of non-coding transcripts.
Circadianes und Stress-System sind zwei physiologische Systeme, die dem Organismus helfen sich an Veränderungen ihrer Umwelt anzupassen. Während letzteres spontane und schnelle Antworten auf akute, unvorhersehbare Umweltreize liefert, sagt das circadiane System täglich wiederkehrende Ereignisse vorher and bereitet den Organismus so vorzeitig auf diese nahende Umweltveränderung vor. Dennoch, trotz dieser unterschiedlichen Reaktionsmechanismen agieren beide Systeme nicht komplett autonom. Studien der vergangen Jahre belegen vielmehr eine Interaktion beider Systeme. So postulieren sie zum einem Unterschiede in der Stressantwort in Abhängigkeit von der Tageszeit zu der der Reiz auftritt und weisen zugleich auf eine Zunahme von gestörten biologischen Tagesrhythmen, wie zum Beispiel Schlafstörungen, in Folge von unkontrollierten oder exzessiven Stress hin. Ebenso liefern kürzlich durchgeführte Studien an Vertebraten und Pilzen Hinweise, dass mit p38, eine Stress-aktivierte Kinase, an der Signalweiterleitung zur inneren Uhr beteiligt ist (Hayashi et al., 2003), sogar durch dieses endogene Zeitmesssystem reguliert wird (Vitalini et al., 2007; Lamb et al., 2011) und deuten damit erstmals eine mögliche Verbindung zwischen Stress-induzierten und regulären rhythmischen Anpassungen des Organismus an Umweltveränderungen an. Molekulare und zelluläre Mechanismen dieser Verknüpfung sind bisher noch nicht bekannt.
Während die Rolle von p38 MAPK bei der Stress- und Immunantwort in Drosophila melanogaster gut charakterisiert ist, wurden Expression und Funktion von p38 in der inneren Uhr hingegen bislang nicht untersucht. Die hier vorliegende Arbeit hatte daher zum Ziel mittels immunhistochemischer, verhaltensphysiologischer und molekularer Methoden eine mögliche Rolle der Stress-aktivierten Kinase im circadianen System der Fliege aufzudecken. Antikörperfärbungen sowie Studien mit Reporterlinien zeigen deutliche Färbesignale in den s-LNv, l-LNv und DN1a und erbringen erstmals einen Nachweis für p38 Expression in den Uhrneuronen der Fliege. Ebenso scheint die Aktivität von p38 MAPK in den DN1a uhrgesteuert zu sein. So liegt p38 vermehrt in seiner aktiven Form in der Dunkelphase vor und zeigt, neben seiner circadian regulierten Aktivierung, zusätzlich auch eine Inaktivierung durch Licht. 15-Minuten-Lichtpulse in der subjektiven Nacht führen zu einer signifikanten Reduktion von aktivierter, phosphorylierter p38 MAPK in den DN1a von Canton S Wildtypfliegen im Vergleich zu Fliegen ohne Lichtpuls-Behandlung. Aufzeichnungen der Lokomotoraktivität offenbaren zusätzlich die Notwendigkeit von p38 MAPK für wildtypisches Timing der Abendaktivität sowie zum Erhalt von 24-Stunden-Verhaltensrhythmen unter konstanten Dauerdunkel-Bedindungen. So zeigen Fliegen mit reduzierten p38 Level in Uhrneuronen einen verzögerten Beginn der Abendaktivität und stark verlängerte Freilaufperioden. In Übereinstimmung mit Effekten auf das Laufverhalten scheint darüber hinaus die Expression einer dominant-negativen Form von p38b in Drosophila’s wichtigsten Uhrneuronen eine verspätete nukleäre Translokation von Period zur Folge zu haben. Westernblots legen zusätzlich einen Einfluss von p38 auf den Phosphorylierungsgrad von Period nahe und liefern damit einen mögliche Erklärung für den verspäteten Kerneintritt des Uhrproteins. Abschließende Stützung der Westernblotergebnisse bringen in vitro Kinasenassays und deuten auf p38 als eine potentielle „Uhrkinase“ hin, welche auch in vivo Period an Serin 661 sowie weiteren potentiellen Phosphorylierungsstellen phosphorylieren könnte.
Zusammengenommen deuten die Ergebnisse der hier vorliegenden Arbeit eindeutig auf eine bedeutende Rolle von p38, neben dessen Funkion im Stress-System, auch im circadianen System der Fliege hin und offenbaren damit die Möglichkeit, dass p38 als Schnittstelle zwischen beider Systeme fungiert.
Accurate information transfer between neurons governs proper brain function. At chemical synapses, communication is mediated via neurotransmitter release from specialized presynaptic intercellular contact sites, so called active zones. Their molecular composition constitutes a precisely arranged framework that sets the stage for synaptic communication.
Active zones contain a variety of proteins that deliver the speed, accuracy and plasticity inherent to neurotransmission. Though, how the molecular arrangement of these proteins influences active zone output is still ambiguous. Elucidating the nanoscopic organization of AZs has been hindered by the diffraction-limited resolution of conventional light microscopy, which is insufficient to resolve the active zone architecture on the nanometer scale. Recently, super-resolution techniques entered the field of neuroscience, which yield the capacity to bridge the gap in resolution between light and electron microscopy without losing molecular specificity. Here, localization microscopy methods are of special interest, as they can potentially deliver quantitative information about molecular distributions, even giving absolute numbers of proteins present within cellular nanodomains.
This thesis puts forward an approach based on conventional immunohistochemistry to quantify endogenous protein organizations in situ by employing direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM). Focussing on Bruchpilot (Brp) as a major component of Drosophila active zones, the results show that the cytomatrix at the active zone is composed of units, which comprise on average ~137 Brp molecules, most of which are arranged in approximately 15 heptameric clusters. To test for a quantitative relationship between active zone ultrastructure and synaptic output, Drosophila mutants and electrophysiology were employed. The findings indicate that the precise spatial arrangement of Brp reflects properties of short-term plasticity and distinguishes distinct mechanistic causes of synaptic depression. Moreover, functional diversification could be connected to a heretofore unrecognized ultrastructural gradient along a Drosophila motor neuron.
The learned helplessness phenomenon is a specific animal behavior induced by prior exposure to uncontrollable aversive stimuli. It was first found by Seligman and Maier (1967) in dogs and then has been reported in many other species, e.g. in rats (Vollmayr and Henn, 2001), in goldfishes (Padilla, 1970), in cockroaches (Brown, 1988) and also in fruit flies (Brown, 1996; Bertolucci, 2008). However, the learned helplessness effect in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) has not been studied in detail. Thus, in this doctoral study, we investigated systematically learned helplessness behavior of Drosophila for the first time.
Three groups of flies were tested in heatbox. Control group was in the chambers experiencing constant, mild temperature. Second group, master flies were punished in their chambers by being heated if they stopped walking for 0.9s. The heat pulses ended as soon as they resumed walking again. A third group, the yoked fly, was in their chambers at the same time. However, their behavior didn’t affect anything: yoked flies were heated whenever master flies did, with same timing and durations. After certain amount of heating events, yoked flies associated their own behavior with the uncontrollability of the environment. They suppressed their innate responses such as reducing their walking time and walking speed; making longer escape latencies and less turning around behavior under heat pulses. Even after the conditioning phase, yoked flies showed lower activity level than master and control flies. Interestingly, we have also observed sex dimorphisms in flies. Male flies expressed learned helplessness not like female flies. Differences between master and yoked flies were smaller in male than in female flies. Another interesting finding was that prolonged or even repetition of training phases didn’t enhance learned helplessness effect in flies.
Furthermore, we investigated serotonergic and dopaminergic nervous systems in learned helplessness. Using genetic and pharmacological manipulations, we altered the levels of serotonin and dopamine in flies’ central nervous system. Female flies with reduced serotonin concentration didn’t show helpless behavior, while the learned helplessness effect in male flies seems not to be affected by a reduction of serotonin. Flies with lower dopamine level do not display the learned helplessness effect in the test phase, suggesting that with low dopamine the motivational change in learned helplessness in Drosophila may decline faster than with a normal dopamine level.
Synaptic plasticity determines the development of functional neural circuits. It is widely accepted as the mechanism behind learning and memory. Among different forms of synaptic plasticity, Hebbian plasticity describes an activity-induced change in synaptic strength, caused by correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity. Additionally, Hebbian plasticity is characterised by input specificity, which means it takes place only at synapses, which participate in activity. Because of its correlative nature, Hebbian plasticity suggests itself as a mechanism behind associative learning.
Although it is commonly assumed that synaptic plasticity is closely linked to synaptic activity during development, the mechanistic understanding of this coupling is far from complete.
In the present study channelrhodopsin-2 was used to evoke activity in vivo, at the glutamatergic Drosophila neuromuscular junction. Remarkably, correlated pre- and postsynaptic stimulation led to increased incorporation of GluR-IIA-type glutamate receptors into postsynaptic receptor fields, thus boosting postsynaptic sensitivity. This phenomenon is input-specific.
Conversely, GluR-IIA was rapidly removed from synapses at which neurotransmitter release failed to evoke substantial postsynaptic depolarisation. This mechanism might be responsible to tame uncontrolled receptor field growth. Combining these results with developmental GluR-IIA dynamics leads to a comprehensive physiological concept, where Hebbian plasticity guides growth of postsynaptic receptor fields and sparse transmitter release stabilises receptor fields by preventing overgrowth.
Additionally, a novel mechanism of retrograde signaling was discovered, where direct postsynaptic channelrhodopsin-2 based stimulation, without involvement of presynaptic neurotransmitter release, leads to presynaptic depression. This phenomenon is reminiscent of a known retrograde homeostatic mechanism, of inverted polarity, where neurotransmitter release is upregulated, upon reduction of postsynaptic sensitivity.
Large-scale anatomical and functional analyses of the connectivity in both invertebrate and mammalian brains have gained intense attention in recent years. At the same time, the understanding of synapses on a molecular level still lacks behind. We have only begun to unravel the basic mechanisms of how the most important synaptic proteins regulate release and reception of neurotransmitter molecules, as well as changes of synaptic strength. Furthermore, little is known regarding the stoichiometry of presynaptic proteins at different synapses within an organism. An assessment of these characteristics would certainly promote our comprehension of the properties of different synapse types. Presynaptic proteins directly influence, for example, the probability of neurotransmitter release as well as mechanisms for short-term plasticity. We have examined the strength of expression of several presynaptic proteins at different synapse types in the central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster using immunohistochemistry. Clear differences in the relative abundances of the proteins were obvious on different levels: variations in staining intensities appeared from the neuropil to the synaptic level. In order to quantify these differences, we have developed a ratiometric analysis of antibody stainings. By application of this ratiometric method, we could assign average ratios of presynaptic proteins to different synapse populations in two central relays of the olfactory pathway. In this manner, synapse types could be characterized by distinct fingerprints of presynaptic protein ratios. Subsequently, we used the method for the analysis of aberrant situations: we reduced levels of Bruchpilot, a major presynaptic protein, and ablated different synapse or cell types. Evoked changes of ratio fingerprints were proportional to the modifications we had induced in the system. Thus, such ratio signatures are well suited for the characterization of synapses. In order to contribute to our understanding of both the molecular composition and the function of synapses, we also characterized a novel synaptic protein. This protein, Drep-2, is a member of the Dff family of regulators of apoptosis. We generated drep-2 mutants, which did not show an obvious misregulation of apoptosis. By contrast, Drep-2 was found to be a neuronal protein, highly enriched for example at postsynaptic receptor fields of the input synapses of the major learning centre of insects, the mushroom bodies. Flies mutant for drep-2 were viable but lived shorter than wildtypes. Basic synaptic transmission at both peripheral and central synapses was in normal ranges. However, drep-2 mutants showed a number of deficiencies in adaptive behaviours: adult flies were locomotor hyperactive and hypersensitive towards ethanol-induced sedation. Moreover, the mutant animals were heavily impaired in associative learning. In aversive olfactory conditioning, drep-2 mutants formed neither short-term nor anaesthesia-sensitive memories. We could demonstrate that Drep-2 is required in mushroom body intrinsic neurons for normal olfactory learning. Furthermore, odour-evoked calcium transients in these neurons, a prerequisite for learning, were reduced in drep-2 mutants. The impairment of the mutants in olfactory learning could be fully rescued by pharmacological application of an agonist to metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Quantitative mass spectrometry of Drep-2 complexes revealed that the protein is associated with a large number of translational repressors, among them the fragile X mental retardation protein FMRP. FMRP inhibits mGluR-mediated protein synthesis. Lack of this protein causes the fragile X syndrome, which constitutes the most frequent monogenic cause of autism. Examination of the performance of drep-2 mutants in courtship conditioning showed that the animals were deficient in both short- and long-term memory. Drep-2 mutants share these phenotypes with fmrp and mGluR mutants. Interestingly, drep-2; fmrp double mutants exhibited normal memory. Thus, we propose a model in which Drep-2 antagonizes FMRP in the regulation of mGluR-dependent protein synthesis. Our hypothesis is supported by the observation that impairments in synaptic plasticity can arise if mGluR signalling is imbalanced in either direction. We suggest that Drep-2 helps in establishing this balance.
Animals need to evaluate their experiences in order to cope with new situations they encounter. This requires the ability of learning and memory. Drosophila melanogaster lends itself as an animal model for such research because elaborate genetic techniques are available. Drosphila larva even saves cellular redundancy in parts of its nervous system. My Thesis has two parts dealing with associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. Firstly, I tackle the question of odour processing in respect to odour quality and intensity. Secondly, by focusing on the evolutionarily conserved presynaptic protein Synapsin, olfactory learning on the cellular and molecular level is investigated. Part I.1. provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity in larval Drosophila by using four recognition-type experiments to result in a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. A further comparison of these combined perceived differences to published calculations of physico-chemical difference reveals a weak correlation between perceptual and physico-chemical similarity. Part I.2. focuses on how odour intensity is interpreted in the process of olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. First, the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities are described in order to choose odour intensities such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but tested for retention either with that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. A specificity of retention for the trained intensity is observed for all the odours used. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of associative olfactory memory trace formation. In part II.1. of the thesis, the cellular site and molecular mode of Synapsin function is investigated- an evolutionarily conserved, presynaptic vesicular phosphoprotein. On the cellular level, the study shows a Synapsin-dependent memory trace in the mushroom bodies, a third-order “cortical” brain region of the insects; on the molecular level, Synapsin engages as a downstream element of the AC-cAMP-PKA signalling cascade.