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In somatic cells DNA topoisomerase II (topo II) is thought to be involved in the domain Organization of the genome by anchoring the basis of chromatin loops to a chromosomal scafFold. Lampbrush chromosomes of am-phibian oocytes directly display this radial loop Organization in cytological preparations. In order to find out whether topo II may play a role in the Organization of these meiotic chromosomes, we performed immunofluorescence studies using antibodies against Xenopus topo II. Our results indicate that topo II is apparently absent from lampbrush chromosomes and is hence unlikely to act as a "fastener" of the numerous lateral chromosomal loops. Topo II was, however, enriched in the amplified nucleoli of Xenopus oocytes.
Structural details of the dictyosomal pores in several plant cell types are described from tangential and cross sections of Golgi cisternae. Frequency distributions of the sizes of such Golgi pores are given and compared with the corresponding values of nuclear pores in the same cells. Golgi pore inner diameters are less homogeneously distributed and can be as small as 100 A or less. They are not simply cisterna I holes, but are often associated with centrally located electron dense granules or rods and with inner pore filaments. This organization, which is very common in dictyosomal pores in plant and animal cells, has some similarities with the structural architecture of nuclear envelope and annulate lamellar pore complexes. The particulate material associated with the dictyosomal pores shows spatial and structural relationship to cytoplasmic ribosomes. Possible modes of Golgi pore formation and some consequences of these observations for interpretation of nuclear pore structures are discussed.
Visualizing nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), nucleoprotein complexes and chromatin requires the use of special electron microscopicspreading techniques. In part 4 (27 refs.), methods are outlined for spreading DNA and RNA molecules for electron microscopic observation, these methods using modifications of the basic protein film method developed by A. Kleinschmidt and R. K. Zahn (1959). Hybridization techniques that allow the observation of heteroduplexes formed between two DNA molecules or between DNA and RNA molecules are reviewed, with special emphasis being placed on the DNA-RNA hybrids as a tool for elucidating RNA splicing. Techniques for studying DNA-protein interactions without the use of a protein monolayer film are mentioned. Finally, the "Miller spreading technique" for visualizing the nucleosomal organization of eukaryotic chromatin as well as the transcription of genes is discribed and illustrated.
Die Vögel der Azoren
(1971)
Während einer viermonatigen Reise zu allen neun Azoreninseln wurde der gesamte Brutvogelbestand dieses Archipels untersucht. Die Befunde sind in einer detaillierten Artenliste zusammengefaßt, ergänzt durch ökologische und brutbiologische Anmerkungen. Zahlreiche Beobachtungen lassen vermuten, daß vor allem Stieglitz und Kanarienvogel tägliche und auch jahreszeitlich bedingte interinsulare Flüge unternehmen. Die Lautäußerungen sechs verschiedener Vogel arten sind in Klangspektrogrammen dargestellt. Ein mathematischer Ansatz zeigt, daß sich die Anzahl der auf einer bestimmten Insel brütenden Landvogelarten umgekehrt proportional zur Entfernung zum europäischen Festland und proportional zum Logarithmus naturalis der Inselfläche verhält. Die abgeleitete Formel läßt sich prinzipiell auch auf andere Atlantikinseln anwenden, die weitgehend vom Festland isoliert sind.
Several types of "irregular" structures in the arrangement of lateral fibrils were noted in electron microscopic preparations of transcriptionally active nucleolar chromatin from various plant and animal cells. Such forms include: I. Disproportionately long lateral fibrils which occur either as individual fibrils or in groups; 2. "Prelude complexes" and other arrangements of lateral fibrils in apparent spacer intercepts; 3. Thickening of the rDNA chromatin axis at the starting end of pre-rRNA matrix units; 4. Extremely long matrix units , the length of which exceeds that of the rDNA (double-strand) sequence complementary to the specific pre-rRN A (for abbreviations see text). In addition, the stability of high molecular weight RNAs contained in the nucleolar ribonucleoproteins during the preparation for electron microscopy was demonstrated by gel electrophoresis. The observations indicate that the morphological starting point of a pre-rRNA matrix unit is not necessarily identical with the initiation site for synthesis of pre-rRNA, but they rather suggest that the start of the transcriptional unit is located at least O.2-D.8 JLm before the matrix unit and that parts of the "apparent spacer" are transcribed. It is proposed that the pre-rRN A molecules do not represent the primary product of rDNA transcription but rather relatively stable intermediate products that have already been processed during transcription.
The desert isopod, Hemilepistus reaumuri, extremely common in the arid regions of North Africa and Asia Minor, depends upon the burrows it itself digs for survival during the hotter parts of the year. The dig-ging of new burrows is limited by chmatic conditions to a short period during the spring. Burrows must be constantly defendet - especially against roving eonspecifics. The decisive problem of a connnuous burrow defense is solved through cooperative behavior: the adult woodlice form monogamous pairs whose partners recognize one another individually. Here, questions on the binding of partners, especially the problem of the binding of male to female will be treated upon, along with questions on the evolution of monogamy, wherein the purely maternal families of Porcellio species will be taken as models for intermediäre stages. At first, males olHemilepistus are not permitted to copulate at all; later, for a relatively long period, they are only permitted incomplete copulations, the females alone have control over the partunal ecdysis; they alone determine the moment of final copulations. Under the thermal conditions prevalent during the season of pair formation, a female irreversibly induces a parturial ecdysis only when it has spent a minimum of sev-eral days in her own burrow with a specific male. At higher average temperatures, the number of females which undergo parturial ecdyses without these preconditions increases sharply. Males cannot greatly lnrlu-ence the willingness of females to reproduce with the investment they make in the digging of burrows; the factors deciding this are the male's presence and its role as guard. The first condition necessary for the genesis of monogamy might have been the evolution of a stncüy lo-cation-dependent copulatory behavior, which guaranteed the male exclusive mating pnveliges with the female whose location - the burrow - he acheived control of. A male must, under these conditions, serve guard duty in his own interest, and defend the burrow against competitors (Cf or 2) seeking an already-dug burrow. The decisive advantage for the female in the beginning of the development was probably that she could leave the burrow for extended feeding excursions, whereas alone it would have to either completely forego nourishment or, as is the case with the Porcellio species mentioned, must greatly restrict the spectrum of food that it can use (to that which is to be found only a short distance from the burrow and which can eas-ily be carried inside the burrow). This could be a disadvantage, especially during egg production. Necessary to the male's successful defense of the burrow is that he recognises his female. Studies of the Canary Island Porcellio species have shown over which pathways and under what selection pressures the recopinon of individuals, as is realized mHemilepistus, could have evolved. Females can bind males longer, the longer the period of their attraction is extended: Females olHemilepistus reaumuri have been proven to be al·ready att-ractive before they are ready to copulate and still remain attractive after they have copulated. The conse-quences of the last fact will be discussed. The question of why the males remain with the females after the parturial ecdysis will also be discussed: The great danger to the male's investment resulting from a tooi early abandoning, and the low probability of successfully finding another partner after a later abandomng should prevent a positive balance in the males' cost-effecriveness calculations.
Assoziationen von Ameisen mit Pflanzen (und oft noch mit pflanzensaugenden Insekten als drittem Partner) dürften eine Ursache des Artenreichtums und der hohen Abundanzen tropischer Formicidae sein. Die von den Ameisen genutzten Pflanzen bieten entweder Nahrung an, über extraflorale Nektarien und/oder Nährkörperchen, oder aber - bei den eigentlichen Myrmekophyten - Nistraum und z.T. auch Nahrung. Diese Beziehungen zeichnen sich durch unterschiedliche Nutzungsweisen und Nutzungsintensitäten und damit stark differierende Abhängigkeit der Partner voneinander aus. Ein besonders breites Spektrum von Ameisen-Pflanzen-Assoziationen finden wir in der paläotropischen Baumgattung Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae), die sich daher als Modellsystem für vergleichende Untersuchungen hervorragend eignet. Die Grundfrage unserer Untersuchungen an diesem System lautet: Verläuft aufgrund der ausgeprägt mosaikartigen Verteilung der von den myrmekophilen Pflanzen angebotenen Nahrungs- und Nistraumressourcen die Neu- und Wiederbesiedlung von Habitaten durch die Ameisen in Form von Zufallsprozessen? Oder werden, im Gegenteil, durch diesen Umstand Spezialisierungen seitens der Ameisen gefördert und die Zusammensetzung der Lebensgemeinschaften dadurch stärker deterministisch geprägt? Unsere bisherigen Untersuchungen zeigen, daß beide Prinzipien wirken. Bei der alleinigen Nutzung von Nahrungsressourcen fehlen spezialisierte Beziehungen weitgehend und stochastische Ereignisse dürften sehr häufig die Pflanzen-Ameisen-Assoziation bestimmen. Bei den eigentlichen Myrmekophyten hingegen ist die Auswahl der assozierten Ameisen viel stärker determiniert, ganz besonders dann, wenn der Wohnraum, den die Pflanze offeriert, nur durch aktives Öffnen seitens der Ameisen erschlossen werden kann.
The assembly of DNA into nucleosomal and supranucleosomal chromatin structures has been studied (i) by injection of circular DNA molecules (plasmids) into nuclei of Pleurodeles waltlii oocytes; and (ii) by in vitro incubation of plasmid molecules with the supernatant fraction from oocyte nuclei of Pleurodeles and Xenopus laevis, followed by purification of nucleoprotein structures formed with sucrose gradient centrifugation. [n both types of experiments , spread preparations of the newly assembled and transcriptionally inactive chromatin , examined by electron microscopy , show dense globular higher order (supranucleosomal) packing forms. Under partially relaxing (low salt) preparation conditions granular chromatin subunits of about 30 nm diameter can be seen either as widely spaced particles or in closely packed aggregates. The transcriptionally inactive endogenous chromatin of chromomeres of lampbrush chromosomes is arranged in similar higher order chromatin units. A correlation is found between the sizes of the DN A molecule probes used and the numbers of nucleosomes and higher order globules in the assembled chromatin structures. After prolonged dispersion in low salt buffers , these globular chromatin units unfold into chains of7-12 nucleosomes. The results support the concept that chromatin is arranged , under physiological ion concentrations as they are present in the nucleus , in supranucleosomal units of globular morphology.
Using antibodies to various nucleolar and ribosomal proteins, we define, by immunolocalization in situ, the distribution of nucleolar proteins in the different morphological nucleolar subcompartments. In the present study we describe the nucleolar localization of a specific ribosomal protein (51) by immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy using a monoclonal antibody (R5 1-105). In immunoblotting experiments, this antibody reacts specifically with the largest and most acidic protein of the small ribosomal subunit (51) and shows wide interspecies cross-reactivity from amphibia to man. Beside its localization in cytoplasmic ribosomes, this protein is found to be specifically localized in the granular component of the nucleolus and in distinct granular aggregates scattered over the nucleoplasm. This indicates that ribosomal protein 51, in contrast to reports on other ribosomal proteins, is not bound to nascent pre-rRNA transcripts but attaches to preribosomes at later stages of rRNA processing and maturation. This protein is not detected in the residual nucleolar structures of cells inactive in rRNA synthesis such as amphibian and avian erythrocytes. During mitosis, the nucleolar material containing ribosomal protein 51 undergoes a remarkable transition and shows a distribution distinct from that of several other nucleolar proteins. In prophase, the nucleolus disintegrates and protein 51 appears in numerous small granules scattered throughout the prophase nucleus. During metaphase and anaphase, a considerable amount of this protein is found in association with the surfaces of all chromosomes and finely dispersed in the cell plasm. In telophase, protein 51-containing material reaccumulates in granular particles in the nucleoplasm of the newly formed nuclei and, finally, in the re-forming nucleoli. These observations indicate that the nucleolus-derived particles containing ribosomal protein 51 are different from cytoplasmic ribosomes and, in the living cell, are selectively recollected after mitosis into the newly formed nuclei and translocated into a specific nucleolar subcompartment, i.e ., the granular component. The nucleolar location of ribosomal protein 51 and its rearrangement du'ring mitosis is discussed in relation to the distribution of other nucleolar proteins.
Nuclei of amphibian oocytes contain large amounts of actin, mostly in unpolymerized or short-polymer form. When antibodies to actin or actin-binding proteins (fragmin and the actin modulator from mammalian smooth muscle) are injected into nuclei of living oocytes of Pleurodeles waltlii, transcription of the lampbrush chromosomes, but not of the rRNA genes, is inhibited. When transcription is repressed by drugs or RNA is digested by microinjection of RNAase into oocyte nuclei, an extensive meshwork of actin filament bundles is seen in association with the isolated lampbrush chromosomes. These observations indicate a close relationship between the state of nuclear actin and transcriptional activity and suggest that nuclear actin may be involved in transcriptional events concerning protein-coding genes.
Ultrastructural localization of DNA in two Cryptomonas species by use of a monoclonal DNA-antibody
(1986)
Immunogold cytochemistry - DNA localization - Cryptomonas nucleomorph The distribution and subcellular localization of DNA in the unicellular alga Cryptomonas has been investigated electron-microscopically by indirect immunocytochemistry, using a monoclonal DNA antibody and a gold-Iabeled secondary antibody. This technique proved to be very sensitive and entirely specific. DNA could be demonstrated in four different compartments (nucleus, nucleomorph, plastid, and mitochondrion). Within the plastid, DNA is concentrated in stroma regions that are localized preferentially around the center of the organelle. The mitochondrion contains several isolated DNA-containing regions (nucleoids). Within the nucleus, most of the DNA is localized in the 'condensed' chromatin. DNA was also detectable in small areas of the nucleolus, whereas the interchromatin space of the nucleus appeared almost devoid of DNA. Within the nucleomorph, DNA is distributed inhomogeneously in the matrix. DNA could furthermore be detected in restricted areas of the 'fibrillogranular body' of the nucleomorph, resembling the situation encountered in the nucleol us. The presence of DNA and its characteristic distribution in the nucleomorph provide additional, strong evidence in favour of the interpretation of that organelle as the residual nucleus of a eukaryotic endosymbiont in Cryptomonas.
The morphology of nucleolar and non-nucleolar (Iampbrush chromosome loops) chromatin was studied in the electron microscope during states of reduced transcriptional activity in amphibian oocytes (Xenopus laevis, Triturus alpestris, T. cristatus). Reduced transcriptional activity was observed in maturing stages of oocyte development and after treatment with an inhibitor, actinomycin D. Strands of nucleolar chromatin appear smooth and thin, and contain only few, if any, nucleosomal particles in the transcribed units. This is true whether they are densely or only sparsely covered with lateral ribonucleoprotein fibrils. This smooth and non-nucleosomal character is also predominant in the interspersed, apparently nontranscribed rDNA spacer regions. During inactivation, however, nucleolar chromatin frequently and progressively assumes a beaded appearance in extended fibril-free-that is, apparently nontranscribed - regions. I n either fUll-grown 00- cytes or late after drug treatment, most of the nucleolar chromatin is no longer smooth and thin, but rather shows a beaded configuration indistinguishable from inactive non - nucleolar chromatin. In many chromatin strands, transitions of fibril-associated regions of smooth character into beaded regions wihout lateral fibrils are seen. Similarly, in the non-nucleolar chromatin of the retracting lampbrush chromosome loops, reduced transcriptional activity is correlated with a change from smooth to beaded morphology. Here, however, beaded regions are also commonly found interspersed between the more or less distant bases of the lateral fibrils, the putative transcriptional complexes. I n both sorts of chromatin, detergents (in particular Sarkosyl) that remove most of the chromatin proteins including histones from the DNA axis but leave the RNA polymerases of the transcriptional complexes attached were used to discriminate between polymerases and nucleosomal particles. The results suggest that nucleosomes are absent in heavily transcribed chromatin regions but are reformed after inactivation. In contrast to the findings with inactivated nucleolar genes, in lampbrush chromosome loops the beaded nucleosomal configuration appears to be assumed also in regions within transcriptional units that, perhaps temporarily, are not involved in transcription.
Comparisons ofrelative lengths oflampbrush loops, nascent RNP transcripts and hnRNA molecules from oocytes of amphibia with different C-values show that there is an increasing trend in loop, and transcriptional unit, length with increase in genome size but no increasing trend with respect to RN A contour length.The formation of duplex regions and circles in RNP fibrils indicates that RNA processing may occur within the nascent fibrils. The hnRNA molecules from oocytes of the various amphibia readily form intermolecular duplex structures. These complementary sequences have a low kinetic complexity and are transcribed from highly repetitive sequences distributed throughout the genome. Their possible function is considered.
A monoclonal murine antibody (No-I 14) is described which reacts specifically with a polypeptide of molecular weight (M,) 180000 present in low-speed nuclear pellets from oocytes and somatic cells of Xenopus laevis and X. borealis and in isolated amplified nucleoli. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis has revealed the acidic nature of this polypeptide (isoelectric at pH of ca 4.2 in the presence of 9.5 M urea). A relatively large proportion of the protein is extracted at elevated ionic strength( i.e., at 0.4-0.5 M alkali salt) in a form sedimenting at approx. 7-8S , compatible with a monomeric state. It is also extracted by digestion with RNase but not with DNase. In immunofluorescence microscopy, antibody No-114 stains intensely nucleoli of oocytes and all somatic cells examined , including the residual nucleolar structure of Xenopus erythrocytes which are transcriptionally inactive. During mitosis the antigen does not remain associated with the nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) of chromosomes but is released and dispersed over the cytoplasm until telophase when it re-associates with the reforming interphase nucleoli. At higher resolution the immunofluorescent region is often resolved into a number of distinct subnucleolar components of varied size and shape. Immunoelectron microscopy using colloidal gold-coupled secondary antibodies reveals that the M, 180000 protein is confined to the dense fibrillar component of the nucleolus. This conclusion is also supported by its localization in the fibrillar part of segregated nucleoli of cells treated with actinomycin D. We conclude that nucleoli contain a prominent protein of M, 180000 which contributes to the general structure of the dense fibrillar component of the interphase nucleolus , independent of its specific transcriptional activity.
Nucleoli are the morphological expression of the activity of a defined set of chromosomal segments bearing rRNA genes. The topological distribution and composition of the intranucleolar chromatin as well as the definition of nucleolar structures in which enzymes of the rDNA transcription machinery reside have been investigated in mammalian cells by various immunogold labelling approaches at the ultrastructural level. The precise intranucleolar location of rRNA genes has been further specified by electron microscopic in situ hybridization with a non-autoradiographic procedure. Our results indicate that the fibrillar centers are the sole nucleolar structures where rDNA, core histones, RNA polymerase I and DNA to po isomerase I are located together. Taking into account the potential value and limitations of immunoelectron microscopic techniques, we propose that transcription of the rRNA genes takes place within the confines of the fibrillar centers, probably close to the boundary regions to the surrounding dense fibrillar component.
Homozygous deletions in Wilms' tumor DNA have been a key step in the identification and isolation of the WTI gene. Several additional loci are also postulated to contribute to Wilms' tumor formation. To assess the frequency of WTI alterations we have analyzed the WTI locus in a panel of 77 Wilms' tumors. Eight tumors showed evidence for large deletions of several hundred or thousand kilobasepairs of DNA, some of which were also cytogenetically detected. Additional intragenic mutations were detected using more sensitive SSCP analyses to scan all 10 WTI exons. Most of these result in premature stop codons or missense mutations that inactivate the remaining WTI allele. The overall frequency of WTI alterations detected with these methods is less than 15%. While some mutations may not be detectable with the methods employed, our results suggest that direct alterations of the WTI gene are present in only a small fraction of Wilms' tumors. Thus, mutations at other Wilms' tumor loci or disturbance of interactions between these genes likely play an important role in Wilms' tumor development.
Recent progresses and developments in molecular biology provide a wealth of new but insufficiently characterised data. This fund comprises amongst others biological data of genomic DNA, protein sequences, 3-dimensional protein structures as well as profiles of gene expression. In the present work, this information is used to develop new methods for the characterisation and classification of organisms and whole groups of organisms as well as to enhance the automated gain and transfer of information. The first two presented approaches (chapters 4 und 5) focus on the medically and scientifically important enterobacteria. Its impact in medicine and molecular biology is founded in versatile mechanisms of infection, their fundamental function as a commensal inhabitant of the intestinal tract and their use as model organisms as they are easy to cultivate. Despite many studies on single pathogroups with clinical distinguishable pathologies, the genotypic factors that contribute to their diversity are still partially unknown. The comprehensive genome comparison described in Chapter 4 was conducted with numerous enterobacterial strains, which cover nearly the whole range of clinically relevant diversity. The genome comparison constitutes the basis of a characterisation of the enterobacterial gene pool, of a reconstruction of evolutionary processes and of comprehensive analysis of specific protein families in enterobacterial subgroups. Correspondence analysis, which is applied for the first time in this context, yields qualitative statements to bacterial subgroups and the respective, exclusively present protein families. Specific protein families were identified for the three major subgroups of enterobacteria namely the genera Yersinia and Salmonella as well as to the group of Shigella and E. coli by applying statistical tests. In conclusion, the genome comparison-based methods provide new starting points to infer specific genotypic traits of bacterial groups from the transfer of functional annotation. Due to the high medical importance of enterobacterial isolates their classification according to pathogenicity has been in focus of many studies. The microarray technology offers a fast, reproducible and standardisable means of bacterial typing and has been proved in bacterial diagnostics, risk assessment and surveillance. The design of the diagnostic microarray of enterobacteria described in chapter 5 is based on the availability of numerous enterobacterial genome sequences. A novel probe selection strategy based on the highly efficient algorithm of string search, which considers both coding and non-coding regions of genomic DNA, enhances pathogroup detection. This principle reduces the risk of incorrect typing due to restrictions to virulence-associated capture probes. Additional capture probes extend the spectrum of applications of the microarray to simultaneous diagnostic or surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Comprehensive test hybridisations largely confirm the reliability of the selected capture probes and its ability to robustly classify enterobacterial strains according to pathogenicity. Moreover, the tests constitute the basis of the training of a regression model for the classification of pathogroups and hybridised amounts of DNA. The regression model features a continuous learning capacity leading to an enhancement of the prediction accuracy in the process of its application. A fraction of the capture probes represents intergenic DNA and hence confirms the relevance of the underlying strategy. Interestingly, a large part of the capture probes represents poorly annotated genes suggesting the existence of yet unconsidered factors with importance to the formation of respective virulence phenotypes. Another major field of microarray applications is gene expression analysis. The size of gene expression databases rapidly increased in recent years. Although they provide a wealth of expression data, it remains challenging to integrate results from different studies. In chapter 6 the methodology of an unsupervised meta-analysis of genome-wide A. thaliana gene expression data sets is presented, which yields novel insights in function and regulation of genes. The application of kernel-based principal component analysis in combination with hierarchical clustering identified three major groups of contrasts each sharing overlapping expression profiles. Genes associated with two groups are known to play important roles in Indol-3 acetic acid (IAA) mediated plant growth and development as well as in pathogen defence. Yet uncharacterised serine-threonine kinases could be assigned to novel functions in pathogen defence by meta-analysis. In general, hidden interrelation between genes regulated under different conditions could be unravelled by the described approach. HMMs are applied to the functional characterisation of proteins or the detection of genes in genome sequences. Although HMMs are technically mature and widely applied in computational biology, I demonstrate the methodical optimisation with respect to the modelling accuracy on biological data with various distributions of sequence lengths. The subunits of these models, the states, are associated with a certain holding time being the link to length distributions of represented sequences. An adaptation of simple HMM topologies to bell-shaped length distributions described in chapter 7 was achieved by serial chain-linking of single states, while residing in the class of conventional HMMs. The impact of an optimisation of HMM topologies was underlined by performance evaluations with differently adjusted HMM topologies. In summary, a general methodology was introduced to improve the modelling behaviour of HMMs by topological optimisation with maximum likelihood and a fast and easily implementable moment estimator. Chapter 8 describes the application of HMMs to the prediction of interaction sites in protein domains. As previously demonstrated, these sites are not trivial to predict because of varying degree in conservation of their location and type within the domain family. The prediction of interaction sites in protein domains is achieved by a newly defined HMM topology, which incorporates both sequence and structure information. Posterior decoding is applied to the prediction of interaction sites providing additional information of the probability of an interaction for all sequence positions. The implementation of interaction profile HMMs (ipHMMs) is based on the well established profile HMMs and inherits its known efficiency and sensitivity. The large-scale prediction of interaction sites by ipHMMs explained protein dysfunctions caused by mutations that are associated to inheritable diseases like different types of cancer or muscular dystrophy. As already demonstrated by profile HMMs, the ipHMMs are suitable for large-scale applications. Overall, the HMM-based method enhances the prediction quality of interaction sites and improves the understanding of the molecular background of inheritable diseases. With respect to current and future requirements I provide large-scale solutions for the characterisation of biological data in this work. All described methods feature a highly portable character, which allows for the transfer to related topics or organisms, respectively. Special emphasis was put on the knowledge transfer facilitated by a steadily increasing wealth of biological information. The applied and developed statistical methods largely provide learning capacities and hence benefit from the gain of knowledge resulting in increased prediction accuracies and reliability.
Like many other social insect societies, honeybees collectively share the resources they gather by feeding each other. These feeding contacts, known as trophallaxis, are regarded as the fundamental basis for social behavior in honeybees and other social insects for assuring the survival of the individual and the welfare of the group. In honeybees, where most of the trophallactic contacts are formed in the total darkness of the hive, the antennae play a decisive role in initiation and maintenance of the feeding contact, because they are sensitive to gustatory stimuli. The sequences of behaviors performed by the receiver bees at the beginning of a feeding contact includes the contact of one antenna with the mouthparts of a donor bee where the regurgitated food is located. The antennal motor action is characterized by behavioral asymmetry, which is novel among communicative motor actions in invertebrates. This preference of right over left antenna is without exception even after removal of the antennal flagellum. This case of laterality in basic social interaction might have its reason in the gustatory asymmetry in the antennae, because the right antenna turns out to be significantly more sensitive to stimulation with sugar water of various concentrations than the left one. Trophallactic contacts which guarantee a constant access to food for every individual in the hive are vitally important to the honeybee society, because honeybees are heterothermic insects which actively regulate their thoracic temperature. Even though the individual can regulate its body temperature, its heating performance is strictly limited by the amount of sugar ingested. The reason for this is that honeybees use mostly the glucose in their hemolymph as the energy substrate for muscular activity, and the heat producing flight muscles are among the metabolically most active tissues known. The fuel for their activity is honey; processed nectar with a sugar content of ~80% stored in the honeycomb. The results show that the sugar content of the ingested food correlates positively with the thoracic temperature of the honeybees even if they are caged and show no actual heating-related behavior as in brood warming or heating in the centre of the winter cluster. Honeybees actively regulate their brood temperature by heating to keep the temperature between 33 °C to 36 °C if ambient temperatures are lower. Heating rapidly depletes the worker’s internal energy; therefore the heating performance is limited by the honey that is ingested before the heating process. This study focused on the behavior and the thoracic temperature of the participants in trophallactic food exchanges on the brood comb. The brood area is the centre of heating activity in the hive, and therefore the region of highest energy demand. The results show that the recipients in a trophallactic food exchange have a higher thoracic temperature during feeding contacts than donors, and after the feeding contact the former engage in brood heating more often. The donor bees have lower thoracic temperature and shuttle constantly between honey stores and the brood comb, where they transfer the stored honey to heating bees. In addition, the results show a heat-triggered mechanism that enables donor and recipient to accomplish trophallactic contacts without delay in the total darkness of the hive in the brood area as the most energy consuming part of the hive. Providing heat-emitting workers with small doses of high performance fuel contributes to an economic distribution of resources consistent with the physiological conditions of the bees and the ecological requirements of the hive, resulting in a highly economical resource management system which might be one of the factors favouring the evolution of perennial bee colonies in temperate regions. The conclusion of these findings suggests a resource management strategy that has evolved from submissive placation behavior as it is seen in honeybees, bumblebees and other hymenopterans. The heat-triggered feedback mechanism behind the resource management of the honeybee´s thermoregulatory behavior reveals a new aspect of the division of labor and a new aspect of communication, and sheds new light on sociality in honeybees.
Around 10.000 – 150.000 endogenous DNA damage-induced lesions occur in a human body per day and cell. Accumulation of unrepaired lesions can lead to aneuploidy and the loss of genomic integrity which in turn contributes to tumor formation. Therefore, an efficient DNA damage response has to be initiated, in the end leading to cell cycle inhibition and induction of repair. Since it is known that a recently characterized human multiprotein complex named LINC (or human dREAM) together with B-MYB is involved in the regulation of G2/M gene expression (Plk1, cyclin B1, cdc2 etc.), its function in the DNA damage response was analyzed in this study. In growing cells B-MYB is associated to the LIN core complex which consists of 5 different proteins named LIN-9, LIN-54, LIN-52, LIN-37 and RbAp48. After induction of DNA damage B-MYB leaves the complex and binding of E2F4 and p130 to LINC is induced. Importantly, the upstream pathway leading to LINC rearrangement is dependent on the activation of p53 and p21. Interestingly, p53 -/- cells solely have the potential to block in the G2 phase of the cell cycle, thereby making them vulnerable for errors during G2 arrest induction or maintenance. Here I demonstrate that LINC rearrangement is absent in p53 -/- cells and that B-MYB/LINC binding to target gene promoters is increased. This in turn leads to an increased G2/M gene expression after DNA damage induction and triggers premature cell cycle re-entry (checkpoint adaptation). Significantly, B-MYB expression is increased in p53 mutated primary breast cancer tumors and correlates with poor prognosis and reoccurrence probably due to its function in checkpoint adaptation. This study gives evidence that inhibition of B-MYB gene expression or B-MYB function in p53 mutant tumors could be a good choice for adjuvant therapy.
Die vorliegende Dissertation beschreibt detaillierte biochemische und biophysikalische Untersuchungen von rekombinanten Porinen aus den beiden pathogenen Bakterien Nocardia farcinica und Vibrio cholerae sowie von nativen Porinen aus drei Streptomyces Arten. Für die beiden pathogenen Vertreter sind bereits impermebable Zellwandstrukturen beschrieben worden (Daffe et al., 1993; Rodriguez-Torres et al., 1993). Für Streptomyces Arten ist keine vergeichbare, definierte äußere Zellwandbarriere bekannt. Im Fall von S. griseus konnten dennoch undefinierte, kovalente Lipidverknüpfungen mit der Peptidoglykanschicht nachgewiesen werden (Kim et al., 2001). Daher besteht die Notwendigkeit des Transports von Nährstoffen und anderer Moleküle auch bei Streptomyces Arten durch porenformende Proteine, so genannte Porine. Unter Porinen versteht man wassergefüllte Kanäle, die in zwei Klassen unterteilt werden können: allgemeine Diffusionsporen und substratspezifische Porine. Allgemeine Diffusionsporen filtern entsprechend der molekularen Masse der gelösten Substrate und weisen ein lineares Verhältnis zwischen Translokationsrate und Substratkonzentrationsgradient auf. Dagegen kann der Transport bestimmter Substanzen durch spezifische Porine mit einer Substrat-Bindestelle im Kanal durch die Michaelis-Menten-ähnliche Kinetik beschrieben werden. Diese Kanäle ermöglichen den schnellen Influx bestimmter Klassen von Substraten.
1 n order to review the contradictory statements on the ultrast ructure of the nuclear envelope, a study was undertaken combining section and negat ive stai ning electron microscopy on manually isolated oocyte nuclei and nuclear envelopes from six amphibian species including Anura as well as Urodela. The a ppeara nce of the negatively stained iso lated nuclear envelopes is described in deta il and the dependence on the preparation co nditions used is emphas ized . Pore complex structures such as pore perimeter, central granule, an nul ar components, interna l fibrils, and annu lus-attached fibrils could be identified by both techniques, negat ive staining and sect ions. Comparative studies show that no marked diffe rences ex ist in the structural data of the nuclear envelope among the investigated amphibians and the significance of the structural components is discussed. A model of the nuclea r pore complex based on the findings of the present investigation is prese nted.
Regulated progression through the cell cycle is essential for ordered cell proliferation. One of the best characterized tumor suppressors is the retinoblastoma protein pRB, which together with the E2F transcription factors regulates cell cycle progression. In the model organisms Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans, RB/E2F containing multiprotein complexes have been described as transcriptional regulators of gene expression. This work first describes a homologous complex in human cells named LINC (for LIN complex). It consists of a stable core complex containing LIN-9, LIN-37, LIN-52, LIN-54 and RbAp48. This core complex interacts cell cycle-dependently with different pocket proteins and transcription factors. In quiescent cells, LINC associates with p130 and E2F4. In S-phase cells these interactions are lost and LINC binds to B-MYB and p107. The transient knock-down of LIN-54 in primary fibroblasts, as the depletion of LIN-9, leads to cell cycle defects. The cells are delayed before the entry into mitosis. This effect is due to the fact that the knock-down of LINC components leads to the downregulation of cell cycle genes responsible for the entry into and exit from mitosis as well as for checkpoints during mitosis. These LINC target genes are known E2F G2/M target genes, which are expressed later than the classical G1/S E2F target genes. The transcriptional regulation by LINC is a direct effect as LINC binds to the promoters of its target genes throughout the cell cycle. LINC contains three DNA-binding proteins. E2F4 and B-MYB, which cell cycle-dependently bind to LINC, are known DNA-binding transcription factors. Additionally, it is show here that the LINC core complex member LIN-54 also directly binds to the promoter of a LINC target gene. Although the exact molecular mechanism of LINC function needs to be analyzed further, data in this work provide a model for the delayed activation of G2/M target genes. B-MYB, a G1/S E2F target gene, binds to LINC upon its expression in S-phase. Then only LINC is a transcriptional activator that induces the expression of the G2/M genes. This provides an explanation for the delayed expression of these E2F G2/M target genes.
Eine der größten Herausforderungen in der Neurobiologie ist es, die neuronalen Prozesse zu verstehen, die Lernen und Gedächtnis zugrundeliegen. Welche biochemischen Pfade liegen z.B. der Koinzidenzdetektion von Reizen (klassische Konditionierung) oder einer Handlung und ihren Konsequenzen (operante Konditionierung) zugrunde? In welchen neuronalen Unterstrukturen werden diese Informationen gespeichert? Wie ähnlich sind die Stoffwechselwege, die diese beiden Arten des assoziativen Lernens vermitteln und auf welchem Niveau divergieren sie? Drosophila melanogaster ist wegen der Verfügbarkeit von Lern-Paradigmen und neurogenetischen Werkzeugen ein geeigneter Modell-Organismus, zum diese Fragen zu adressieren. Er ermöglicht eine umfangreiche Studie der Funktion des Gens S6KII, das in der Taufliege in klassischer und operanter Konditionierung unterschiedlich involviert ist (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz et al., 2004). Rettungsexperimenten zeigen, dass die olfaktorische Konditionierung in der Tully Maschine (ein klassisches, Pawlow’sches Konditionierungsparadigma) von dem Vorhandensein eines intakten S6KII Gens abhängt. Die Rettung war sowohl mit einer vollständigen, als auch einer partiellen Deletion erfolgreich und dies zeigt, dass der Verlust der phosphorylierenden Untereinheit der Kinase die Hauptursache des Funktionsdefektes war. Das GAL4/UAS System wurde benutzt, um die S6KII Expression zeitlich und räumlich zu steuern. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Expression der Kinase während des adulten Stadiums für die Rettung hinreichend war. Dieser Befund schließt eine Entwicklungsstörung als Ursache für den mutanten Phänotyp aus. Außerdem zeigte die gezielte räumliche Rettung von S6KII die Notwendigkeit der Pilzkörper und schloss Strukturen wie das mediane Bündel, die Antennalloben und den Zentralkomplex aus. Dieses Muster ist dem vorher mit der rutabaga Mutation identifizierten sehr ähnlich (Zars et al., 2000). Experimente mit der Doppelmutante rut, ign58-1 deuten an, dass rutabaga und S6KII im gleichen Signalweg aktiv sind. Vorhergehende Studien hatten bereits gezeigt, dass die unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse bei operanter und klassischer Konditionierung auf verschiedenen Rollen für S6KII in den zwei Arten des Lernens hindeuten (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz, 2002). Diese Schlussfolgerung wurde durch den mutanten Phänotyp der transgenen Linien in der Positionskonditionierung und ihr wildtypisches Verhalten in der klassischen Konditionierung zusätzlich bekräftigt. Eine neue Art von Lern-Experiment, genannt „Idle Experiment“, wurde entworfen. Es basiert auf der Konditionierung der Laufaktivität, stellt eine operante Aufgabenstellung dar und überwindet einige der Limitationen des „Standard“ Heat-Box Experimentes. Die neue Art des Idle Experimentes erlaubt es, „gelernte Hilflosigkeit“ in Fliegen zu erforschen, dabei zeigte sich eine erstaunliche Ähnlichkeit zu den Vorgängen in komplizierteren Organismen wie Ratten, Mäusen oder Menschen. Gelernte Hilflosigkeit in der Taufliege wurde nur in den Weibchen beobachtet und wird von Antidepressiva beeinflusst.
Certain autoimmune sera contain antibodies against a nucleolar ribonucleoprotein particle associated with 7-2-RNA (R. Reddy et al. (1983) J. Bioi. Chem . 258, 1383; C. Hashimoto and J. A. Steitz (1983) J. Bioi. Chem. 258, 1379). In this study, we showed by immunofluorescence microscopy that antibodies reactive with 7-2-ribonucleoprotein immunolocalized in the granular regions of actinomycin D and 5,6-dichloro-I-j3-D-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole (DRB)-segregated nucleoli from Vero cells. By electron microscopic immunocytochemistry, antigen-antibody complexes were located in the granular component of transcriptionally active nucleoli from rat liver hepatocytes and HeLa cells. Anti-7- 2-RNP antibodies from two autoimmune sera immunoprecipitated a major protein of Mr 40,000 from e5S] methionine-Iabeled HeLa cell extract. The immunolocalization data suggest that 7-2-ribonucleoprotein may be involved in stages of ribosome biogenesis which take place in the granular component of the nucleolus, i.e., assembly, maturation, and/or transport of preribosomes
Repeat sequences are transcribed in the germinal vesicles of amphibian oocytes. In the hnRNA population both complements of the repeats are found and can be readily detected because they form intermolecular duplex structures. The structure and formation of duplex regions have been studied in the hnRNA of Xenopus laevis, Triturus cristatus, Amphiuma means and Necturus maculosus, a series of amphibians of increasing genome size (C-value). In T. cristatus, the duplex structures are mostly 600- 1200 bp in length, whereas in X. laevis they are shorter and in N. maculosus they tend to be longer. Although the proportion of RNA sequence capable of rapidly forming duplex structures is different in different organisms, this property bears no relationship to C-value. However the sequence complexity of complementary repeats, as estimated from the rate of duplex formation, does show an increasing trend with C-value. The complementary repeats found in oocyte hnRNA are transcribed from families of DNA sequence that are each represented in the genome by thousands of copies. The extent of cross-species hybridization is low, indicating that the repeat sequences transcribed in different amphibian genera are not the same. In situ hybridization experiments indicate that the repeat sequences are spread throughout the genome. The evolution and possible function of complementary repeats are considered.
The formation of daughter nuclei and the reformation of nucleolar structures was studied after microinjection of antibodies to RNA polymerase I into dividing cultured cells (PtK2). The fate of several nucleolar proteins representing the three main structural subcomponents of the nucleolus was examined by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. The results show that the RNA polymerase I antibodies do not interfere with normal mitotic progression or the early steps of nucleologenesis, i.e. , the aggregation of nucleolar material into prenucleolar bodies. However,they inhibit the telophasic coalescence of the prenucleolar bodies into the chromosomal nucleolar organizer regions, thus preventing the formation of new nucleoli. These prenucleolar bodies show a fibrillar organization that also compositionally resembles the dense fibrillar component of interphase nucleoli . We conclude that during normal nucleologenesis the dense fibrillar component forms from preformed entities around nucleolar organizer regions, and that this association seems to be dependent on the presence of an active form of RNA polymerase I.
The ultrastructure of th e growin g and ma turing primary nucleus of Acetabularia medite rranea and Acetabularia major has been studied with the use of various fi xation procedures. Particular interest has been focused on the deta ils of the nuclear periphery and the perinuclear region. It is demonstrated that early in nuclear grow th a characteristic perinucl ear structura l complex is formed which is, among the eukaryotic cells, unique to Acetabularia and re lated genera. This perinuclear system consists essentially of a) the nuclear envelope with a very hi gh pore frequency and various pore complex assoc iat ion s w ith granular and/or threadlike structures some of which are continuous with the nucleolus; b) an approx imate ly 100 nm thick intermediate zone densely filled with a filam entOus material and occasional sma ll membraneous structures from which the typical cytOplasmic and nuclear organe lles and particles are excl ud ed ; c) an adjacent Iacunar labyrinthum which is interrupted by many plasmatic junction channels between the intermed iate zone and the free cytOplasm; d) numerous dense perinuclear bodies in the juxtanuclear cytOplasm which a re especia lly frequent at the junction channels and reveal a composition of aggregated fibrillar and granul ar structures; e) very dense exclusively fibrill ar agg regates which occur either in assoc iation with t he perinuclear region of the lacunar labyrinthum or, somewhat further out, in the cytOplasmic strands between the bra nches of the lacun ar labyrinthum in the form of slender, characteristic rods or "sausages".
The number of ribosomal RNA molecules which are transferred through an average nuclear pore complex per minute into the cytoplasm (nuclear pore flow rate, NPFR) during oocyte growth of Xenopus laevis is estimated. The NPFR calculations are based on determinations of the increase of cytoplasmic rRNA content during defined time intervals and of the total number of pore complexes in the respective oogenesis stages. In the mid-la mpbrush stage (500:"700 I'm oocyte diameter) the NPFR is maximal with 2.62 rRNA molecules/ pore/ minute. Then it decreases to zero at the end of oogenesis. The nucleocytoplasmic RNA f10w rates determined are compared with corresponding values of other cell types. The molecular weight of the rRNA precursor transcribed in the extrachromosomal nucleoli of Xenopus lampbrush stage oocytes is determined by acrylamide gel electrophoresis to be 2.5 x 10· daltons. From the temporal increase of cytoplasmic rRNA (3.8 I'g per oocyte in 38 days) and the known number of simultaneously growing precursor molecules in the nucleus the chain growth rate of the 40 S precursor RNA is estimated to be 34 nucleotides per second.
Semi -iso la ted annul a te lamellae were prepared from single newt oocy tes (Triturus alpestris) by a modified Call a n-T omlin technique. Such preparations were examined with the electron mi croscope, and the negative sta ining a ppearance of th e a nnulate lamellae is described . The annul a te lamellae can be de tected either adhering to the nuclear envelope or being detached from it. Sometimes they a re obse rved to be connected with slender tubular-like structures interpreted as pa rts of the endoplasmic reti culum. The results obta ined from negativ e sta ining a re combined with those from sections. Especially, the structural data on th e a nnula te lamellae and the nuclear envelope of the very same cell were compa red . Evidence is presented th a t in the oocytes studied the two kinds of porous cisternae, n amely a nnul a te lamellae and nuclear envelope, a re markedly distinguished in that the annul a te lamellae ex hibit a much higher pore frequency (generally about twice tha t found for the corresponding nuclear envelope) and have al so a rela tive pore area occupying as much as 32 % to 55 % of th e cistern al surface (compa red with 13 % to 22 % in the nuclear envelopes). T he pore di ame ter a nd all other ultras tructural details of the pore complexes, however, a re equi valent in both kinds of porous cisternae. Like the annuli of the nuclear pore complexes of various a nimal and pl ant cells, the a nnuli of the a nnula te lamellae pores reveal al so an eightfold symmetry of their subunits in negatively stained as well as in ectioned ma teria l. Furthermore, th e a nnul a te lamellae a re shown to be a site of activity of the Mg-Na-Kstimul a ted ATPase.
RNA polymerase I preparations purified from a rat hepatoma contained DNA topoisomerase activity. The DNA topoisomerase associated with the polymerase had an Mr of 110000, required Mg2+ but not ATP, and was recognized by anti-topoisomerase I antibodies. When added to RNA polymerase I preparations containing topoisomerase activity, anti-topoisomerase I antibodies were able to inhibit the DNA relaxing activity of the preparation as well as RNA synthesis in vitro. RNA polymerase II prepared by analogous procedures did not contain topoisomerase activity and was not recognized by the antibodies. The topoisomerase I: polymerase I complex was reversibly dissociated by column chromatography on Sephacryl S200 in the presence of 0.25 M (NH4hS04. Topoisomerase I was immunolocalized in the transcriptionally active ribosomal gene complex containing RNA polymerase I in situ. These data indicate that topoisomerase I and RNA polymerase I are tightly complexed both in vivo and in vitro, and suggest a role for DNA topoisomerase I in the transcription of ribosomal genes.
The karyotype of D. elongatus was investigated by means of C-banding, silver staining, and mithramycinand quinacrine fluorescent staining. The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 50. C-banding shows pericentromerically localized constitutive heterochromatin in every chromosome. Two of the chromosome pairs carry two telomeric nucleolus organizer regions each. No heteromorphic sex chromosomes were found.
Behavioural adaptations have made the desert isopod Hemilepistus reaumuri the most successful herbivore and detritivore of the macrofauna of many arid areas in North Africa and Asia Minor. For survival and reproduction Hemilepistus is dependent on burrows. New burrows can only be dug during spring. With the time-consuming digging of a burrow, Hemilepistus has only made the first step towards solving its ecological problems. The burrows are vital and have to be continuously defended against competitors. This requirement is met by co-operation of individuals within the framework of a highly developed social behaviour. In spring adults form monogamous pairs in which partners recognize each other individually and later form, with their progeny, strictly closed family communities. Hemilepistus is compared with a Porcellio' sp. which has developed, convergently, a social behaviour which resembles that of Hemilepistus in many respects, but differs essentially in some aspects, partly reflecting differences in ecological requirements. This and a few other Porcellio species demonstrate some possible steps in the evolution of the social behaviour of Hemilepistus. The female Hemilepistus is-in contrast to Porcellio sp. - semelparous and the selective advantages of monogamy in its environment are not difficult to recognize. This chapter discusses how this mating system could have evolved and especially why monogamous behaviour is also the best method for the Hemilepistus male to maximize its reproductive success. The cohesion of pairs and of family communities in Hemilepistus is based on a highly developed chemical communication system. Individual- and family-specific badges owe their specificity to genetically determined discriminating substances. The nature of the badges raises a series of questions: e.g. since alien badges release aggression, how do parents avoid cannibalizing their young? Similar problems arise from the fact that family badges are mixtures of chemical compounds of very low volatility with the consequence that they can only be transferred by direct contact and that during moulting all substances are lost which an individual does not produce itself. It is shown that in solving these problems inhibiting properties (presumably substances) and learning play a dominant role.
Individual recogmtlon in the non-eusocial arthropods is, according to our present knowledge, predominantly found in the frame of permanent or temporary monogamy. In some cases, e. g. in stomatopods and possibly other marine crustaceans too, individual recognition may serve to allow identification of (i) individuals within dominance hierarchies or (ii) neighbours in territorial species thus helping to avoid the repetition of unnecessary and costly fights. Kin recognition is experimentally proven only in some isopod species (genera Hemilepistus and Porcel/io) and in the primitive cockroach (termite?) Cryptocercus. The «signatures» or «discriminators» used in the arthropods are chemical. It is assumed that the identifying substances are mainly genetically determined and in this paper I shall discuss possible evolutionary origins. The main part of this account is devoted to the presentation of some aspects of the highly developed individual and kin identification and recognition system in the desert isopod Hemilepistus reaumuri - a pure monogamous species in which pairs together with their progeny form strictly exclusive family units. Amongst other things problems of (i) mate choice, (ii) learning to recognize a partner, (iii) avoiding the un adaptive familiarization with aliens are treated. Monogamy under present conditions is for both sexes the only suitable way of maximizing reproductive success; an extremely strong selection pressure must act against every attempt to abandon monogamy under the given ecological conditions. The family «badges» which are certainly always blends of different discriminator substances are extremely variable. This variability is mainly due to genetical differences and is not environmentally caused. It is to be expected that intra-family variabiliry exists in respect of the production of discriminator substances. Since the common badge of a family is the result of exchanging and mixing individual substances, and since the chemical nature of these discriminators requires direct body contacts in order to acquire those substances which an individual does not produce itself, problems must arise with molting. These difficulties do indeed exist and they are aggravated by the fact that individuals may produce substances which do not show up in the common family badge. An efficient learning capability on the one hand and the use of inhibiting properties of newly molted isopods help to solve these problems. In the final discussion three questions are posed and - partly at least - answered; (i) why are families so strictly exclusive, (ii) how many discriminator substances have to be produced to provide a variability allowing families to remain exclusive under extreme conditions of very high population densities, (iii) what is the structure of the family badge and what does an individual have to learn apart from the badge in order not to mistake a family member for an alien or vice versa.
No abstract available
Observations on captive reed frogs Hyperolius viridijlavus ommatostictus showed that seven out of 24 females changed into males. Sex change occurred without any hormone treatment and resulted in completely functional males. The adaptive value is discussed in terms of maximizing life-time reproductive success. Hyperolius r. ommatostictus is the first amphibian known to show functional sex reversal.
The relationship between different degrees of intraspecific crowding of reedfrog tadpoles and their physiological responses to a deterioration of the natal pond water quality was examined under laboratory conditions. Tadpoles that were reared at a lower density metamorphosed significantly earlier than those raised at a higher density. As density increases, the average body length at metamorphosis decreases. However, at low tadpole density, a significantly higher diversity of body size classes among freshly metamorphosed froglets was observed than under more crowded conditions. Mortality increased during metamorphic climax and was inversely correlated with the tadpole density. In ephemeral ponds, an accumulation of nitrogenous wastes from metabolic processes and/or a concentration by evaporation in prolonged rainless periods can pose a considerable chemical stress to reedfrog tadpoles. Hyperolius viridiflavus ommatostictus responded to an increasing ammonia concentration with an activity increase of the ornithine cycle (intensified urea synthesis). hi contrast, Hyperolius marmoratus taeniatus exhibited a strong tolerance against high ammonia levels. A deterioration of the natal pond water quality caused H. v. ommatostictus and H. v. nitidulus tadpoles to adjust to harsher climatic conditions at the time of metamorphosis. This physiological preadjustment enabled the froglets to start feeding and growing immediately after metamorphosis even at low air humidity and rare precipitation events. In contrast, froglets that were raised in daily refreshed water exhibited high mortality rates if subjected to identical conditions. As one possible indicator of the actual climatic conditions prevailing in the surrounding terrestrial habitat, fluctuations in the water ammonia level are discussed.
Precipitating anti-PM-Sel antibodies are present in sera from patients with polymyositis. scleroderma. and polymyositis/scleroderma overlap syndromes. By indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. anti-PM-Scl antibodies stained the nucleolus in cells of different tissues and species. suggesting that the antigen is highly conserved. By electron microscopy, anti-PM-Scl antibodies reacted primarily with the granular component of the nuc1eolus. Drugs that inhibit rRNA synthesis had a marked effect on the expression of PM-Scl antigen. In actinomycin D-treated cells, immunofluorescence staining by anti-PM-Scl was signüicantly reduced with residual staining restricted to the granular regions of nuc1eoli. Treatment with 5,6-dichloro-beta-D- ribofuranosylbenzimidazole (DRB) also selectively reduced nuc1eolar staining. On a molecular level, anti-PM-Sel antibodies precipitated 11 polypeptides with molecular weights (Mr) ranging from 110,000 to 20,000. The Mr 80,000 and 20.000 polypeptides were phosphorylated. Evidence suggests that the PM-Scl antigen complex may be related to a prerlbosomal particle.
Antibodies to calf thymus histone H2B were purified by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and injected into oocyte nuclei of Pleurodeles waltlii. As shown by indirect immunofluorescence these antibodies cross-reacted strongly with corresponding histones associated with lampbrush chromosomes. Shortly after injection the lateral loops of the chromosomes retracted into the chromomeres and by 3 h postinjection the 'lampbrush' appearance was completely lost and the chromosomes appeared in light-microscopic preparations as rod-like structures consisting of 10ngitudina11y coalesced chromomeres. In control oocytes injected with non-immune immunoglobulins or antibodies against a ubiquitous transcript-associated protein no morphological alterations of the lampbrush chromosomes could be observed. Electron microscopic spreads of chromosomes prepared at various times after injection of anti-H2B revealed a progressive loss of transcriptional complexes from the loop axes. Finally, higher-order chromatin configurations, like supranuc1eosomal globules (' superbeads ') or cable-like chromatin strands 50- 60 nm thick predominated, indicating complete transcriptional inactivation of a11 chromosomal regions. The results indicate that H2B antibodies react specifically with his tones associated with the transcribed DNA of lateral loops in their native state. The resulting antigenantibody complexes seem to inhibit progression of the R A polymerases along the template, thus causing the premature release of transcripts, a process analogous to the stripping effect of actinomycin D. The demonstration of histones associated with heavily transcribed regions, which are not compacted into nucleosomes but largely extended, supports the current concept that unfolding of nucleosomes to a110w transcription of the DNA does not involve dissociation of histones. In contrast, amplified ribosomal RNA genes are unaffected by injected HzB antibodies. This does not necessarily indicate absence of his tones from nucleolar chromatin, since we do not know whether it is accessible in vivo to antibodies or whether the histone antigenie determinants are masked by the presence of other proteins. The technique of injecting specific antibodies should be widely applicable when analysing the in vivo distribution of chromosomal components at the electron-microscopic level and when studying complex metabolie processes, like the cleavage and modification of RNA, by selective inhibition of defined enzymic steps.
Autoantibodies to components of the nucleolus are a unique serological feature of patients with scleroderma. There are autoantibodies of several specificities; one type produces a speckled pattern of nucleolar staining in immunofluorescence. In actinomycin D and 5,6-dichloro-{j-D-ribofuranosylbenzimidazoletreated Vero cells, staining was restricted to the fibrillar and not the granular regions. By double immunofluorescence, specific rabbit anti-RNA polymerase I antibodies stained the same fibrillar structures in drug-segregated nucleoli as scleroderma sera. Scleroderma sera immunoprecipitated 13 polypeptides from (35S)methionine-labeled HeLa cell extract with molecular weights ranging from 210,000 to 14,000. Similar polypeptides were precipitated by rabbit anti-RNA polymerase I antibodies, and their common identities were confirmed in immunoabsorption experiments. Microinjection of purified IgG from a patient with speckled nucleolar staining effectively inhibited ribosomal RNA transcription. Autoantibodies to RNA polymerase I were restricted to certain patients with scleroderma and were not found in other autoimmune diseases.
Vasoactive agents which elevate either cGMP or cAMP inhibit platelet activation by pathways sharing at least one component, the 46/50 kDa vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (V ASP). V ASP is stoichiometrically phosphorylated by both cGMP-dependent and cAMPdependent protein kinases in intact human platelets, and its phosphorylation correlates very well with platelet inhibition caused by cGMP- and cAMP-elevating agents. Here we report that in human platelets spread on glass, V ASP is associated predominantly with the distal parts of radial micro filament bundles and with microfilaments outlining the periphery, whereas less V ASP is associated with a central microfilamentous ring. V ASP is also detectable in a variety of different cell types including fibroblasts and epithelial cells. In fibroblasts, V ASP is concentrated at focal contact areas, along microfilament bundles (stress fibres) in a punctate pattern, in the periphery of protruding lamellae, and is phosphorylated by cGMP- and cAMP-dependent protein kinases in response to appropriate stimuli. Evidence for the direct binding of V ASP to F -actin is also presented. The data demonstrate that V ASP is a novel phosphoprotein associated with actin filaments and focal contact areas, i.e. transmembrane junctions between microfilaments and the extracellular matrix.
Nuclei assembled in Xenopus egg extract from purified DNA or chromatin resemble their natural counterparts in a number of structural and functional features. However, the most obvious structural element of normal interphase nuclei, the nucleolus, is absent from the in vitro reconstituted nuclei. By EM, cytological silver staining, and immunofluorescence microscopy employing antibodies directed against various nucleolar components we show that nuclei assembled in vitro contain numerous distinct aggregates that resemble prenucleolar bodies (PNBs) by several criteria. Formation of these PNB-like structures requires pore complex-mediated nuclear transport of proteins but is independent of the genetic content of the in vitro nuclei as well as transcriptional and translational events. Our data indicate that nuclei assembled in vitro are capable of initiating early steps of nucleologenesis but that the resulting PNBs are unable to fuse with each other, probably due to the absence of a functional nucleolus organizer. With appropriate modifications, this experimental system should be useful to define and analyze conditions promoting the site-specific assembly of PNBs into a coherent nucleolar body.
Electron microscope preparations of lampbrush chromosomes from oocytes of Pleurodeles waltl;; have revealed a new class of tandemly repeated genes. These genes are highly active, as judged by the close spacing of nascent transcripts. They occur in clusters of >100 copies and are transcribed in units containing roughly 940 base pairs of DNA that are separated by nontranscribed spacers of an estimated DNA content of 2,410 base pairs. The size and the pattern of arrangement of these transcription units can not be correlated with any of the repetitious genes so far described.
A nucleolar skeleton of protein filaments demonstrated in amplified nucleoli of Xenopus laevis
(1981)
The amplified, extrachromosomal nucleoli of Xenopus oocytes contain a meshwork of -4-nm-thick filaments, which are densely coiled into higher-order fibrils of diameter 30-40 nm and are resistant to treatment with high- and low-salt concentrations, nucleases (DNase I, pancreatic RNase, micrococcal nuclease), sulfhydryl agents, and various nonionic detergents. This filamentous "skeleton" has been prepared from manually isolated nuclear contents and nucleoli as weil as from nucleoli isolated by fluorescence-activated particle sorting. The nucleolar skeletons are observed in light and electron microscopy and are characterized by ravels of filaments that are especially densely packed in the nucleolar cortex. DNA as weil as RNA are not constituents of this structure, and precursors to ribosomal RNAs are completely removed from the extraction-resistant filaments by treatment with high-salt buffer or RN ase. Fractions of isolated nucleolar skeletons show specific enrichment of an acidic major protein of 145,000 mol wt and an apparent pi value of -6.15, accompanied in some preparations by various amounts of minor proteins. The demonstration of this skeletal structure in "free" extrachromosomal nucleoli excludes the problem of contaminations by nonnucleolar material such as perinucleolar heterochromatin normally encountered in studies of nucleoli from somatic cells. It is suggested that this insoluble protein filament complex forms a skeleton specific to the nucleolus proper that is different from other extraction-resistant components of the nucleus such as matrix and lamina and is involved in the spatial organization of the nucleolar chromatin and its transcriptional products. In studies of the organization of the interphase nucleus, considerable progress has been made in the elucidation of the arrangement of chromatin components and transcriptional products. However, relatively little is known about the composition and function of another category of nuclear structures, the nonnucleoproteinaceous architectural components that are insoluble in solutions of low and high ionic strength, despite numerous studies dedicated to this problem. Such structures include (a) the nuclear envelope and its pore complexes (I, 15, 18, 23, 37, 41), (b) a peripheral layer of insoluble protein ("lamina"; I, 15, 22, 23, 59), (e) certain skeletal proteins related to the chromosome "scaffold" described by Laemmli and coworkers (see references 2 and 3), and (d) ill-defined tangles of fibrillar structures of the nuclear interior that are collectively described as residual "matrix" (6, 21 ; for reviews, see references THE JOURNAL OF CEll BrOlOGY . VOlUME 90 AUGUST 1981 289-299 © The RockefeIler University Press · 0021 -9525/ 81 / 08/ 0289/ 11 $1 .00 4 and 12). The latter, preparatively
Antibodies directed against RNA polymerase II (B) from Drosophila melanogaster were obtained from rabbit sera and, as monoclonal immunoglobulins, from mouse hybridomas and shown to cross-react with the amphibian enzyme protein. Localization by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy revealed the association of this enzyme with chromatin of interphase nuclei of amphibian cells and its absence in nucleoli. Purified immunoglobulins were microinjected in to nuclei ofliving vitellogenic oocytes of Ple1lrodeles waltlii and X enopus laevis and their effects on transcriptional processes were monitored by biochemical and light and electron microscopic stud ies. RNA polymerase II antibodies from rabbit sera caused a rapid and almost complete release of nascent transcripts from the chromatin axis of the loops of lampbrush chromosomes, followed by collapse of the loops and their retraction on the main chromosome axis. Monoclonal murine antibodies to the Iarge RNA polymerase II subunits also inhibited transcription in chromosome Ioops but appeared to inhibit initiation rather than elongation events. Activities of class land III RNA polymerases were not significantly affected by injection of antibodies to polymerase II, indicating immunological differences between the three RNA polymerases. The potential value of the in vitro test system described , as a very sensitive assay for detecting proteins involved in transcription in living cells, is discussed. 1
The pioneer tree Macaranga in SE Asia has developed manyfold associations with ants. The genus comprises all stages of interaction with ants, from facultative relationships to obligate myrmecophytes. Only myrmecophytic Macaranga offer nesting space for ants and are associated with a specific ant partner. The nonmyrmecophytic species are visited by a variety of different ant species which are attracted by extrafloral nectaries (EFN) and food bodies. Transitional Macaranga species like M. hosei are colonized later in their development due to their stem structure. Before the colonization by their specific Crematogaster partner the young plants are visited by different ant species attracted by EFN. These nectaries are reduced and food body production starts as soon as colonization becomes possible. We demonstrated earlier that obligate ant partners can protect their Macaranga plants against herbivore damage and vine cover. In this study we focused on nonspecific interactions and studied M. tanarius and M. hosei, representing a non-myrmecophyte and a transitional species respectively. In ant exclusion experiments both M. tanarius and M. hosei suffered significantly higher mean leaf damage than controls, 37% versus 6% in M. hosei, 16% versus 7% in M. tanarius. M. tanarius offers both EFN and food bodies so that tests for different effects of these two food rewards could be conducted. Plants with food bodies removed but with EFN remaining had the lowest mean increase of herbivore damage of all experimental groups. Main herbivores on M. hosei were mites and caterpillars. Many M. tanarius plants were infested by a shootborer. Both Macaranga species were visited by various ant species. Crematogaster spp. being the most abundant. We found no evidence for any specific relationships. The results of this study strongly support the hypothesis that non-specific, facultative associations with ants can be advantageous for Macaranga plants. Food bodies appear to have lower attractive value for opportunistic ants than EFN and may require a specific dietary adaptation. This is also indicated by the fact that food body production in the transitional M. hosei does not start before stem structure allows a colonization by the obligate Crematogaster species. M. hosei thus benefits from facultative association with a variety of ants until it produces its first domatia and can be colonized by its obligate mutualist.
C. borneensis (Myrmicinae) lives in dose association with several myrmecophytic species of the South East Asian pioneer tree genus Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae). The ants are adapted to the plants so dosely that they do not survive away from it. The only food they utilize is provided as food bodies by the plant and honeydew from specific scale insects kept inside the hollow internodes. The anatomy of the digestive tract is also adapted to life on the host plant: the crop is very sm all and can store only minute food quantities. C. borneensis exdusively colonizes certain Macaranga species. Queens as weIl as workers are able to recognize their host plant species, probably by chemical cues. Colony founding queens swarm throughout the year, mostly during darkness. There is strong competition among queens for host plants. Queens do not carry scale insects on their nuptial flight. Worker ants are active day and night. Most of them patrol and collect food bodies on the younger parts of the host plant. An important characteristic is their deaning behaviour, which results in removal of aIl foreign objects. Even though they are rather smalI, workers respond very aggressively to certain kinds of disturbance of the host plant. The ants attack most phytophagous insects and are especially effective in killing and removing smalI, softbodied herbivores (e.g. caterpillars). They do not possess a functional sting, but apply defensive secretion and-once biting an intruder-will not let go. Their effective alarm system results in a mass attack, which provides adequate defence for the colony and the host plant. A comparison with another Crematogaster species further illustrated the special adaptations of C. borneensis to its host plant.
Nonnucleolar chromatin from interphase nuclei of Physarum polycephalum plasmodia occurs in two different structural configurations as seen in electron microscopic spread preparations. While the majority of the chromatin is devoid of nascent ribonucleoprotein (RNP) fibrils and compacted into nucleosomal particles, a minor proportion (10- 20%) is organized differently and reveals a smooth contour. It is this form of smooth chromatin which is rich in transcription units (mean length: 1.36±0.21 11m). Only occasionally are solitary nascent RNP fibrils observed which are associated with beaded strands of chromatin. In transcribed smooth chromatin nucleosomal particles are not only absent from the transcription units but also from their nontranscribed flan king regions, indicating that this special structural aspect is not merely a direct consequence of the transcriptional process. The existence of ca. 10- 20% of Physarum chromatin in the smoothly contoured form is discussed in relation to reports of a preferential digestibility of a similar proportion of Physarum chromatin by DNAse I (Jalouzot et al. , 1980) and to the altered configuration of "peak A" chromatin subunits after micrococcal nuclease digestion (Johnson et al., 1978a, b).
Oocytes of the water beetle, Dytiscus marginalis, contain large amounts of rDNA most of which is present in the form of rings containing one or several pre-rRNA genes. Electron microscopy of spread preparations of vitellogenic oocytes has shown that the rDNA is extended in chromatin rings with transcribed pre- rRNA genes and is not packed into nucleosomes (Trendelenburg eta!. , 1976). When similar preparations are made from previtellogenic ooytes in which a large proportion of the nuc1eolar chromatin is transcriptionally inactive, a different morphological form of this chromatin is recognized. In contrast to the transcribed chromatin rings the inactive nucleolar chromatin circles show the characteristic beaded configuration, indicative of nucleosomal packing. Nuc1eosomal packing is also indicated by the comparison of the lengths of these chromatin rings with both iso lated rDNA circ1es and transcribed chromatin rings. In addition, these inactive nuc1eofilaments often appear to be compacted into globular higher order structures of diameters from 21 to 34nm, each composed of an aggregate of 6-9 nuc1eosomes. While the estimated reduction of the overall length of rDNA, as seen in our preparations, is, on the average, only 2.2 - 2.4 fold in the nuc1eosomal state it is 10- 13 fold when supranuc1eosomal globules are present. These data show that the extrachromosomal rDNA of these oocytes goes through a cycle of condensation and extensio n, as a function of the specific transcriptional activity, and that the beaded state described here is exc1usively found in the non-transcribed state.
Lengths and patterns of transcriptional units in the amplified nucleoli of oocytes of Xenopus laevis
(1977)
Transcriptionally active chromatin from peripheral amplified nuc1eoli of lampbrush-chromosome stage oocytes of Xenopus laevis was dispersed and spread in various solutions of low salt concentrations (incIuding some with additions of detergents) and examined by electron microscopy. Nucleolar material from oocytes of animals with normal (2-nu) and mutant (I-nu) genetical constitution of nucleolus organizers was compared. Histograms showing the distributions of the lengths of matrix units, apparent spacer intercepts, and the total repeating units of the rDNA containing chromatin axes revealed a significant degree of heterogeneity, with indications of subclasses and predominant repeat unit size c1asses of 3.3 and 3.8 11m length. The correspondence of matrix unit length to the molecular weight of the first stable product of rDNA transcription was studied using gel electrophoresis of labelIed pre-rRNA under non-denaturing and denaturing conditions. Evaluations of individual strands of nucleolar chromatin furt her demonstrated the existence of both (i) strands with obviously homogeneous repeating units and (ii) strands with intra-axial heterogeneity of rDNA subunits. " Preludecomplexes ", i.e. groups of transcriptional complexes in apparent spacer intercepts, were not infrequently noted. The data are compared with the measurements of lengths of repeating units in fragments of rDNA obtained by digestion with EcoRI endonuclease as described by Morrow et al. (1974) and Wellauer et al. (1974, 1976a, b). The results are discussed in relation to problems of variations in the modes of arrangement of the pre-rRNA genes, the state of packing of rDNA during transcription, and possible mechanisms of the amplification process.
The paleotropical tree genus Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) comprises all stages of interaction with ants, from facultative associations to obligate myrmecophytes. In SE.-Asia food availability does not seem to be the limiting factor for the development of a close relationship since all species provide food for ants in form of extrafloral nectar and/or food bodies. Only myrmecophytic Macaranga species offer nesting space for ants (domatia) inside intern odes which become hollow due to degeneration of the pith. Non-myrmecophytic species have a solid stem with a compact and wet pith and many resin ducts. The stem interior of some transitional species remains solid, but the soft pith can be excavated. The role of different ant-attracting attributes for the development of obligate ant-plant interactions is discussed. In the genus Macaranga, the provision of nesting space seems to be the most important factor for the evolution of obligate myrmecophytism.
Nuclear envelopes of maturing oocytes of various amphibia contain an unusually high number of pore complexes in very close packing. Consequently, nuclear envelopes , which can be manually isolated in great purity, provide a remarkable enrichment of nuclear pore complex material, relative to membranous and other interporous structures. When the polypeptides of nuclear envelopes isolated from oocytes of Xenopl/s la evis and Triturus alpestris are examined by gel electrophoresis, visualized either by staining with Coomassie blue or by radiotluorography after in vitro reaction with [3H]dansyl chloride , a characteristic pattern is obtained (10 major and 15 minor bands). This polypeptide pattern is radically different from that of the nuclear contents isolated from the same cell. Extraction of the nuclear envelope with high salt concentrations and moderateIy ac tive detergents such as Triton X- 100 results in the removal of membrane material but leaves most of the non-membranous structure of the pore complexes. The dry weight of the pore complex (about 0.2 femtograms) remains essentially unchanged during such extractions as measured by quantitative electron microscopy . The extracted preparations which are highly enriched in nuclear pore complex material contain only two major polypeptide components with apparent molecular weights of 150000 and 73000. Components of such an electrophoretic mobility are not present as major bands , if at all , in nuclear contents extracted in the same way. lt is concluded that these two polypeptides are the major constituent protein(s) of the oocyte nuclear pore complex and are specific for this structure. When nuclear envelopes are isolated from rat liver and extracted with high salt buffers and Triton X- 100 similar bands are predominant, but two additional major components of molecular weights of 78000 and 66000 are also recognized. When the rat liver nuclear membranes are further subfractionated material enriched in the 66000 molecular weight component can be separated from the membrane material, indicating that this is relatively loosely associated material , probably a part of the nuclear matrix . The results suggest that the nuclear pore complex is not only a characteristic ubiquitous structure but also contains similar, if not identical , skeletal proteins that are remarkably re sistant to drastic changes of ionic strength as weil as to treatments with detergents and thiol reagents.
Sizes of chromosome loops and hnRNA molecules in oocytes of amphibia of different genome sizes
(1982)
The lengths of lampbrush chromosome loops and their tran scription units show a positive correlation with genome size in oocytes of amphibia with different C values. However, there is no such correlation with contour lengths of hnRNA molecu les isolated from these oocytes. These results indi cate th at more ON A sequences are transcribed in amphibia of higher C value , but that processing of RNA transc ripts occurs while they are still attached to the chromosomes as nascent ribonucleoprotein fibrils.
Under the intluence of 5-tluoro-uridine, the ultrastructure of the rDNA transcription units in Xenopus oocytes is altered. Whereas part of the matrix units maintains anormal aspect or shows various degrees of inhibition, in a strong proportion of the transcription units the alternating pattern of matrix units and fibril-free spacer regions is no longer recognized. Transcriptional complexes are found along the entire DNP axis, including the regions of the spacers. These observations support biochemical data on transcription in rDNA spacer region.
On the existence of arrested transcriptional machinery in late stages of avian erythropoiesis
(1976)
No abstract available
Transcriptionally inactive chick erythrocyte nudei were reactivated by Sendai virusinduced fusion of erythrocytes with rat L6j1 myoblasts. We used antibodies to trace the appearance of a specific protein engaged in transcription of a defined dass of genes, those coding for rRNA, during reactivation. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, we found increasing amounts of rat RNA polymerase I to appear, during a certain period of time after fusion, in the reforming nudeoli of the chick nudei. Amounts of rat RNA polymerase I sufficient to be detected by immunofluorescence microscopy had accumulated in the newly developed chick nudeoli 72- 190 h after fusion was initiated. This time interval coincides with the time when chick rRNA synthesis can first be detected. The results raise the possibility that during these stages of the reactivation process chick rRNA genes are transcribed by heterologous RNA polymerase I moleeules of rat origin.
Upon incubation of cultured rat cells with the adenosine analogue 5,6-dichloro-l-β- D-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole (DRB), nucleoli reversibly dissociate into their substructures, disperse throughout the nuclear interior, and form nucleolar "necklaces". We have used this experimental system, which does not inhibit transcription of the rRNA genes, to study by immunocytochemistry the distribution of active rRNA genes and their transcriptional products during nucleolar dispersal and recovery to normal morphology. Antibodies to RNA polymerase I allow detection of template-engaged polymerase, and monoclonal antibodies to a ribosomal protein (S 1) of the small ribosomal subunit permit localization of nucleolar preribosomal particles. The results show that, under the action of DRB transcribed rRNA, genes spread throughout the nucleoplasm and finally appear in the form of several rows, each containing several (up to 30) granules positive for RNA polymerase land argyrophilic proteins. Nucleolar material containing preribosomal particles also appears in granular structures spread over the nucleoplasm but its distribution is distinct from that of rRNA gene-containing granules. We conclude that, although transcriptional units and preribosomal particles are both redistributed in response to DRB, these entities retain their individuality as functionally defined subunits. We further propose that each RNA polymerase-positive granular unit represents a single transcription unit and that each continuous array of granules ("string of nucleolar beads") reflects the linear distribution of rRNA genes along a nucleolar organizer region. Based on the total number of polymerase I-positive granules we estimate that a minimum of 60 rRNA genes are active during interphase of DRB-treated rat cells.
Purified mitochondrial DNA (mitDNA) from ovaries ofXenopus lae vis was injected into the nuclei (germinal vesicles) of large viteUogenic oocytes of the same organism and examined by electron microscopy ofthe spread nuclear contents. Normally located nuclei of untreated oocytes as weil as peripherally translocated nuclei of centrifuged oocytes were used. In addition, oocyte nuclei isolated and incubated under liquid paraffin oil were injected with DNA. The integrity oftranscriptional structures of endogenous chromosomal (Iampbrush chromosomes) and extrachromosomal (nucleoli) genes of the injected nuclei was demonstrated. Microinjected mitDN A was identified as circles of chromatin exhibiting polynucleosome-like organization and a me an contour length of 2.6 J.Lm, corresponding to a compaction ratio of the mitDN A of about 2 : I. This DNA packing ratio is similar to that observed after preparation of various kinds of native chromatin in low salt buffers. The chromatin circles formed from injected mitDNA only very rarely exhibited lateral fibrils suggestive of transcriptional activity. These results suggest that purified mitDNA can be transformed to normally structured chromatin when exposed to oocyte nuclear contents but is rarely , if at all , transcribed in this form and in this environment.
Rabbit antibodies to RNA polymerase I from a rat hepatoma have been used to localize the enzyme in a variety of cells at the light and electron microscopic level. In interphase cells the immunofluorescence pattern indicated that polymerase I is contained exclusively within the nucleolus. That this fluorescence, which appeared punctated rather than uniform, represented transcriptional complexes of RNA polymerase I and rRNA genes was suggested by the observation that it was enhanced in regenerating liver and in a hepatoma and was markedly diminished in cells treated with actinomycin D. Electron microscopic immunolocalization using gold-coupled second antibodies showed that transcribed rRNA genes are located in, and probably confined to, the fibrillar centers of the nucleolus. In contrast, the surrounding dense fibrillar component, previously thought to be the site of nascent prerRNA, did not contain detectable amounts of polymerase I. During mitosis, polymerase I molecules were detected by immunofluorescence microscopy at the chromosomal nucleolus organizer region, indicating that a considerable quantity of the enzyme remains bound to the rRNA genes. From this we conclude that rRNA genes loaded with polymerase I molecules are transmitted from one cell generation to the next one and that factors other than the polymerase itself are involved in the modulation of transcription of DNA containing rRNA genes during the cell cycle.
Die Fanconi Anämie (FA) stellt eine sowohl genetisch als auch phänotypisch äußerst heterogene, autosomal rezessiv und X-chromosomal vererbte Erkrankung dar. Sie ist gekennzeichnet durch chromosomale Instabilität, ein chronisch progredientes Knochenmarkversagen, multiple kongenitale Fehlbildungen und eine Prädisposition zu diversen Neoplasien. Auf zellulärer Ebene ist die FA durch eine erhöhte spontane Chromosomenbrüchigkeit sowie einer Hypersensitivität gegenüber DNA-schädigenden Agenzien charakterisiert. Bislang konnten 13 Komplementations-gruppen (FA-A bis FA-N) und ihre jeweiligen Gene identifiziert werden. Die FA-Proteine spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Reparatur von DNA-Doppelstrang-brüchen. Die breite genetische Heterogenität der Fanconi Anämie und die große Anzahl privater Mutationen, aufgrund derer kaum interindividuelle Vergleiche möglich sind, erschweren eine Genotyp-Phänotyp Korrelation ebenso wie der compound-heterozygote Mutationsstatus vieler FA-Patienten. Bisherige Untersuchungen weisen darauf hin, dass die Art der jeweiligen Mutation einen größeren Einfluß auf die phänotypische Ausprägung der Erkrankung hat als die Art des betroffenen Gens. Zusätzlich zeichnet die Fanconi Anämie eine große phänotypische Variabilität aus, die sich in höchst unterschiedlichen Krankheitsausprägungen und –verläufen äußert. Um aussagekräftige Genotyp-Phänotyp Korrelationen etablieren zu können, bedarf es einer ausreichenden Anzahl von FA-Patienten, bei denen sowohl die Komplementationsgruppe als auch die zugrunde liegende Mutation eindeutig definiert wurden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden exemplarisch die Krankheitsverläufe einiger Patienten (4 x FA-A, 1 x FA-B, 3 x FA-C, 1 x FA-D2 und 2 x FA-G) analysiert und mit den jeweiligen molekulargenetischen Befunden korreliert. Im Anschluss daran wurden in der Literatur beschriebene Genotyp-Phänotyp Korrelationen erläutert, verschiedene Mechanismen der phänotypischen Variabilität dargestellt und abschließend prägnante Kasuistiken nochmals hervorgehoben.
Chromosome translocations involving llpl3 have been associated with familial aniridia in two kindreds highlighting the chromosomal localization of the AN2 locus. This locus is also part of the WAGR complex (Wilros tumor, aniridia, genitourinary abnormalities, and mental retardation). In one kindred, the translocation is associated with a deletion, and probes for this region were used to identify and clone the breakpoints of the translocation in the second kindred. Comparison of phage restriction maps exclude the presence of any sizable deletion in this case. Sequences at the chromosome 11 breakpoint are conserved in multiple species, suggesting that the translocation falls within the AN2 gene.
Disruption of the zinc finger gene GLI3 has been shown to be the cause of Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome (GCPS), at least in some GCPS translocation patients. To characterize this genomic region on human chromosome 7p13, we have isolated a VAC contig of more than 1000 kb including the GLI3 gene. In this contig the gene itself spans at least 200-250 kb. A CpG island is located in the vicinity of the 5' region of the known GLI3 cDNA, implying a potential promoter region.
A trophobiotic relationship between two species of phloem-feeding plataspid bugs and an ant, Meranoplus mucronatus, was discovered on tree trunks in Malaysia. Similar relationships were found between coreid bugs and Crematogaster sp. and Anoplolepis longipes, on bamboo in the same area. The ants recruit to groups of the bugs and feed on the liquid, sugar-rich faeces of the larvae, stimulating release of the honeydew by tactile signals. They protect all stages of the bugs from disturbance by biting and by the use of defensive secretions. Phloem-feeding bugs in the families Plataspidae and Coreidae need long sty lets to pierce the thick bark of their host tree. The different methods of accommodating the resting stylets in these two families are described. The plataspids are described as Tropidotylus servus sp. novo and T. minister sp. novo A coreid previously reported in association with M. mucronatus in Malaya is described as Hygia cliens sp. novo The coreids on bamboo were determined as Cloresmus spp. and Notobitus affinis.
In Peninsular Malaysia the trees Saraca thaipingensis (Caesalpiniaceae) and Crypteronia griffithii (Crypteroniaceae) are inhabited by ants. In the vicinity ofGombak, near Kuala Lumpur, the hollow internodes of young Saraca thaipingensis plants are colonized mainly by two Cladomyrma species. In larger trees a Crematogaster sp. is also found. Crypteronia griffithii is inhabited by a third species of Cladomyrma. None of these species is conspecific with any of the three Cladomyrma taxa so far described. The colonies are founded by single mated queens, which have a conspicuous, sphecid wasp-like behaviour when searching for host plants and nest sites. They chew holes into the plant intern odes and hollow them out to provide nest sites. Coccids and pseudococcids are cultivated within the internodes. The homopterans are not carried by queens on their nuptial flights. They apparently find their way by themselves into the cavities or are perhaps carried there by the worker ants. The Cladomyrma ants on Crypteronia are not aggressive, in contrast to those on Saraca thaipingensis. The relationship of Crypteronia with ants seems to be obligatory, whereas Saraca was only partly colonized by Cladomyrma. The interaction of Saraca with Crematogaster sp. is loose and facultative, since the Crematogaster sp. also lives on other tree species. Our studies have now revealed four Cladomyrma spp. which are regularly associated with plants. The genus therefore seems to have an entirely myrmecophytic way of life.
The Guinea savanna-forest mosaic of West Africa is particularly rich in animal-dispersed plants. African savannas harbour the richest dung beetle community worldwide. The role of primates and dung beetles in natural plant regeneration and biodiversity maintenance in this ecosystem, however, is still poorly understood. The present study on olive baboons (Papio anubis Lesson 1827, Cercopithecinae) at Comoé National Park (CNP), north-eastern Ivory Coast, revealed that western olive baboon populations differ in several ways from their eastern conspecifics. Baboons are commonly regarded as predators of the seeds of their food plants. In the savanna-forest mosaic of West Africa, however, they are highly frugivorous and are important seed dispersers of a high number of woody plant species that differ in fruit type and seed size. They disperse intact seeds of at least 22% of the woody plant species of the regional plant pool. Their "seed dispersal potential", regarding seed number and seed sizes, is comparable to that of the much larger great apes. Relative to the availability in the regional pool of woody plant species, baboons preferred trees to shrubs and lianas as fruit sources and especially included larger fruit into their diet. Among several morphological fruit traits investigated, fruit type and fruit colour best described whether baboons included a species into their diet, whereas fruit type and seed size best predicted whether baboons predated upon the seeds of a food plant species. Seed size is an important plant fitness trait that can influence several steps between fruiting and the establishment of a plant´s offspring. Seed size can vary considerably within and among individuals of the same species. Primates may select for certain seed sizes within a species for a number of reasons, e.g. to decrease indigestible seed load or to increase pulp intake per fruit. Within eight out of ten plant species investigated, which differed in fruit type, seed number and seed size, olive baboons were selective in fruit choice regarding seed size. Seed size selection by olive baboons seems to be influenced, among other traits, by the amount of pulp rewarded per fruit relative to seed load, which varies with fruit and seed shape. Being a habitat generalist (with a preference for forest habitats) and able to move comparatively long distances, the olive baboon might be especially important for the biodiversity maintenance of distant forest islands. Because most woody plant species at the study site had medium-sized to large fruits and seeds, olive baboons may be crucial for seed dispersal and plant recruitment in this ecosystem. Their importance for seed dispersal of plants with small fruits should not, however, be underrated. Observation of frugivores at a typical "bird-dispersed" tree species showed that classification of seed dispersers on the basis of fruit syndromes alone can be misleading. Olive baboons disperse seeds in their faeces in a clumped manner, which generally is regarded disadvantageous for plants. Yet, seeds from all plant species being naturally present in baboon dung during seasonal peaks of dung beetle activity apparently can be scattered locally by dung beetles. Dung beetle activity at baboon faeces deposited in the two habitats was high, totalling 99 species from 26 genera. The probability and pattern of secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles depend on the structure and composition of the dung beetle community, which, in turn, seems to be strongly determined by vegetation type. I thus expected pronounced differences in secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles between seeds deposited by baboons in the savanna and in the forest. Experiments indicated that compared to seeds dispersed by baboons into the forest, seeds that end up in the savanna generally have a higher probability of (a) being removed by dung beetles, (b) being horizontally scattered by telecoprids, (c) being rapidly removed from the place of primary deposition and (d) being secondarily dispersed over larger distances. In general, savanna plants and plant habitat generalists the seeds of which baboons disperse into the savanna should profit most from secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles.
Der eukaryotische Initiationsfaktor 5A (eIF5A) ist evolutionär hoch konserviert und besitzt als einzig bislang bekanntes Protein die Aminosäuremodifikation Hypusin. Obwohl eIF5A ubiquitär exprimiert wird, sind die zellulären Funktionen von eIF5A noch weitgehend unklar. Hypusininhibitoren konnten die Oberflächenexpression von CD83 die CD83 mRNA im Zellkern dendritischer Zellen anreichern und folglich die Oberflächenexpression von CD83 verhindern konnten, wurde eine Beteiligung von eIF5A beim nukleozytoplasmatischen Export der CD83 mRNA vermutet. Weiterhin ist bekannt, dass HuR, ein Protein der ELAV-Familie, an ein cis-aktives RNA-Element mit einer ausgeprägten Sekundärstruktur innerhalb der kodierenden Sequenz der CD83 mRNA bindet. Während die Bindung von HuR an AU-reiche Elemente in der 3UTR bestimmter Transkripte zu deren Stabilisierung führt, wird die Stabilität von CD83-Transkripten durch die Interaktion mit HuR jedoch nicht beeinflusst. In dieser Arbeit wurden Mikroinjektionsstudien in Xenopus laevis-Oozyten zum nukleozytoplasmatischen Export von CD83 mRNA durchgeführt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die charakteristische Sekundärstruktur des HuR-Response-Elements essentiell für den Kernexport von CD83-Transkripten ist. HuR wurde zudem als Bindungspartner von eIF5a identifiziert. Inhibitorische Antikörper sowohl gegen HuR als auch eIF5A waren in der Lage, den Export von CD83-Transkripten zu inhibieren. Während die meisten mRNAs durch den TAP/NXT1-vermittelten Exportweg in das Zytoplasma transportiert werden, transloziert CD83 mRNA CRM1-vermittelt, da der Export durch den CRM1-Inhibitor Leptomycin B gehemmt werden konnte. Oozytentypischer TFIIIA, ebenfalls ein Interaktionspartner von eIF5A, ist in jungen Xenopus-Oozyten sowohl bei der RNA-Polymerase III-abhängigen Transkription von 5S rRNA als auch am nukleozytoplasmatischem Export und der Lagerung von 5S rRNA im Zytoplasma beteiligt. Aufgrund der Parallele zwischen dem HIV-1-Rev vermittelten HIV-1-mRNA-Export und dem TFIIIA-vermittelten 5S rRNA-Export, wurde der Export von TFIIIA im Hinblick auf eine Beteiligung von eIF5A als Kofaktor analysiert. In Xenopus-Oozyten wurde TFIIIA an den nukleoplasmatischen Filamenten der Kernporenkomplexe detektiert. Weiterhin konnte durch den Einsatz des spezifischen CRM1-Inhibitors Leptomycin B bestätigt werden, dass TFIIIA, welches ein leucinreiches Kernexportsignal enthält, mittels CRM1 exportiert wird. Im Overlay-Blot-Assay konnte gezeigt werden, dass eIF5A mit TFIIIA interagiert. Außerdem deuten Mikroinjektionsexperimente darauf hin, dass eIF5A, wie beim HIV-1-Rev-vermittelten Export, auch beim TFIIIA-Export als essentieller Kofaktor involviert ist. Ein weiterer bekannter Bindungspartner von eIF5A ist Aktin, das im Zellkern an verschiedenen Exportprozessen sowie der RNA-Polymerase I-, II- und III-abhängigen Transkription beteiligt ist. Im Gegensatz zu Aktin wurde die Existenz des Aktinpartners Myosin im Zellkern erst vor kurzem realisiert. In dieser Arbeit konnten durch bioinformatische Analysen gezeigt werden, dass Kernmyosin IC bei Vertebraten weit verbreitet ist. Es wurde auch bei Xenopus laevis identifiziert. Im Vergleich zu Myosin IC fand sich ein zusätzlicher Aminoterminus aus 16 Aminosäuren, welcher als Kernlokalisationssignal fungiert. In Oozyten von Xenopus laevis konnte Kernmyosin IC, ähnlich wie RNA-Polymerase II, an den lateralen Schleifen der Lampenbürstenchromosomen dargestellt werden. Inhibierende Kernmyosinantikörper führten nach Mikroinjektion in den Zellkern von Xenopus-Oozyten zu einer kompletten Retraktion der meisten lateralen transkriptionsaktiven Schleifen sowie zu einer Verkürzung der Chromosomenachsen. konnte Kernmyosin IC vor allem im Nukleoluskern detektiert werden, wo es partiell mit RNA-Polymerase I und Fibrillarin kolokalisierte. In amplifizierten Nukleolen führte eine Transkriptionsinhibition mit Aktinomycin D zu einer Umverteilung des Kernmyosin IC zusammen mit der RNA-Polymerase I und der rDNA. Nach Injektion inhibierender Kernmyosinantikörper kam es zu einem massiven architektonischen Umbau der Nukleolen. Im Gegensatz zu den Nukleolen von somatischen Xenopus-Zellen war ein BrUTP-Einbau in amplifizierte Nukleolen jedoch noch möglich. Wie für Kernaktin bereits beschrieben, konnte auch Kernmyosin IC an den nukleoplasmatischen Filamenten der Kernporenkomplexe von Xenopus laevis-Ooyzten dargestellt werden. Da Aktin als essentieller Kofaktor an Exportprozessen beteiligt ist, sollte in Mikroinjektionsexperimenten auch eine Beteiligung von Kernmyosin IC beim Kernexport überprüft werden. Antikörper gegen ein Epitop in der Myosinkopfdomäne des Kernmyosin IC (XNMIC #42) waren im Gegensatz zu Antikörpern, die den charakteristischen Aminoterminus aus 16 Aminosäuren erkennen (XNMIC #54), in der Lage, einen CRM1-vermittelten Proteinexport zu inhibieren.
In dieser Arbeit wurden neue Methoden zur Analyse des Proteoms von Listeria monocytogenes in infizierten Wirtszellen entwickelt und evaluiert. Proteomische Analysen können im Vergleich zu transkriptomischen Analysen durch Erfassung von Proteinmengen und eventuell auch posttranslationalen Modifikationen, sowie von Abbauprozessen ein genaueres Abbild des Funktionszustands einer Zelle unter unterschiedlichen Umweltbedingungen darstellen. Das Hauptproblem bei proteomischen Untersuchungen an in eukaryontischen Wirtszellen gewachsenen Bakterien, nämlich die Überlagerung des bakteriellen Proteinmusters durch die im Überschuss vorhandenen Wirtszellproteine, musste in dieser Arbeit überwunden werden. Es wurde eine Methode etabliert, intrazellulär gewachsene Bakterien über Bindung an paramagnetische Partikel („Beads“) und anschließende Magnetseparation selektiv von Wirtszellkomponenten abzutrennen. Dabei wurden drei Beads-Varianten mit unterschiedlicher Beschichtung gewählt: Dynabeads anti Listeria (Dynal, Oslo), Kieselgel  Magnetit Beads (MERCK in Entwicklung), Dynabeads M-270 Epoxy – CBD Beads (Beschichtung mit Phagenlysin Ply 118). Hierbei konnte nur für die Kieselgel + Magnetit Beads eine hinreichende Isolierungsrate für die Methode der 2-D-Gelelektrophorese von 6-7* 10**7 Listerien/ Zellkulturflasche erreicht werden. Im 2-D-Proteingel zeigte sich jedoch eine starke Streifenbildung, wodurch sich dieser Ansatz als nicht auswertbar erwies. In einem alternativen Ansatz gelang es, aus Infektionen an J774-Makrophagen, die Listerien mittels konsekutiver Waschschritte von Wirtszellproteinen aufzureinigen. Es konnten aus den Infektionen 30-50 µg listerielles Protein isoliert und zweidimensional aufgetrennt werden, wobei das Proteinpattern qualitativ eindeutig dem von in vitro gewachsenen Listeria monocytogenes entsprach. Auf diese Weise konnten 38 Proteine von Listeria monocytogenes, welche von Listerien während der Infektion in Makrophagen induziert oder reprimiert werden anhand der Deta-2-D Software identifiziert, quantifiziert und statistisch ausgewertet werden. Für einige der hier mittels der neu entwickelten Methode identifizierten Proteine konnte anhand der der vorliegenden Literatur (zu Transkriptom, Sekretom, Virulenz von Listeria) bereits eine Beteiligung am Virulenzgeschehen nachgewiesen werden. Zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt unterliegt die proteomische Analyse einigen Limitierungen, z.B. beim Nachweis von schwach exprimierten, stark alkalischen, stark hydrophoben, hochmolekularen und niedermolekularen Proteinen, so dass die derzeitige Methodik noch nicht das gesamte Proteom abdecken kann. Dass die „klassischen“ Virulenzfaktoren pathogener Listerien, Listeriolysin O (LLO), die Phospholipasen PlcA und PlcB, sowie ActA hier nicht erfasst wurden, ist darin begründet, dass es sich um sekretierte Proteine handelt. Besondere Bedeutung kommt der Beobachtung zu, dass nur in ganz wenigen Fällen (z.B. Pgm, ClpP, Pgi, TrxB, MurC) die nachgewiesenen intrazellulären Veränderungen der Proteinmenge mit den von anderen publizierten Transkriptionsdaten übereinstimmen. Diese Diskrepanzen stellen keine Artefakte dar, sondern sind durch intrazelluläre posttranskriptionelle Mechanismen begründet. Insgesamt zeigte auch diese Proteinanalyse , dass bei Replikation von Listeria monocytogenes im Cytosol eukaryontischer Wirtszellen zahlreiche komplexe Anpassungen von teils zentralen aber auch peripheren Stoffwechselwegen und Biosynthesen der Bakterien an dieses spezielle Milieu ablaufen.
Leonia cymosa (Violaceae) is a small tree from the under story of the Amazonian rain forest. I investigated the seed dispersal ecology of L. cymosa in plots of old growth terra firme forest located within the Cuyabeno Faunistic Reserve in north-eastern Ecuador. This species offered good conditions to examine the variation of traits of individual trees and the way they are linked with fruit removal from each tree. With this study I aimed to address the question whether frugivores exert selection pressures on fruits and the fruiting regime of fleshy fruited plants. The mean height of a fruiting L. cymosa was 6.6 m (range: 2 - 12.6 m). The median tree density was 11.8 trees per hectare. Trees grew in clusters consisting of different numbers of trees of different heights. L. cymosa flowered two times a year, in late February to March and in October. The respective fruiting seasons occurred in August/September and between March and May. The fruit pulp of L. cymosa contained the sugars fructose, glucose, and sucrose, the total soluble sugar being the first important nutritional compound of the fruit pulp. The second important compound was proteins. No lipids were found in the fruit pulp. The variation of nutritional quality of the fruits was high within trees. Nonetheless, significant differences were found among trees in all nutrient constituents studied. The maximum of ripe fruits produced per season by a single tree was 427. Median productivity of the trees was 45 ripe fruits throughout the fruiting season in 1999 (n=57) and 36 ripe fruits in 2000 (n=92). The maximum standing crop of fruits in a tree was 324 fruits (counted in 2000). Black mantle tamarins, Saguinus nigricollis (Callitrichidae), and squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus (Cebidae), and possibly an unknown nocturnal frugivore consumed the fruits of L. cymosa at my study site. Green-rumped acouchis (Myoprocta pratti, Dasyproctidae) consumed fallen fruits and seeds underneath the trees. Black mantle tamarins and squirrel monkeys differed widely in their effectiveness as seed dispersers. Black mantle tamarins swallowed the seeds together with the fruit pulp and defecated intact seeds far away from the mother tree. Squirrel monkeys opened the fruits to suck and gnaw on the fruit pulp, and then dropped seeds to the forest floor below the tree crowns. Each of my study plots fell into the core home range of one group each of S. nigricollis and S. sciureus. Thus, the frugivore assemblage is small and disperser availability is limited for the individual tree of L. cymosa. In a sample of 6 trees of comparable and high fruit crop size, the total of ripe fruits removed from a tree throughout the whole fruiting season by the reliable seed disperser S. nigricollis was neither significantly correlated with the content of any of the nutrients measured in the fruit pulp (fructose, glucose, sucrose, total protein; pulp does not contain lipids), nor with total metabolisable energy, seed to pulp weight ratio, or water content of the fruit pulp. Feeding preferences for single sugars determined by other laboratory studies were not confirmed by this field study. The reliable seed disperser S. nigricollis does not seem to exert selective pressure on the nutrient content of the fruits of L. cymosa. Seasonal fruit crop size was the main predictor of all aspects of fruit removal by the effective disperser of L. cymosa, Saguinus nigricollis, as well as by the non-disperser, Saimiri sciureus. Trees with larger seasonal fruit crop size had a higher probability to have fruits removed by the disperser than those with small seasonal fruit crop sizes. They also had a higher number of fruits removed by the seed disperser. However, the proportion of fruits removed by the disperser decreased with increasing seasonal fruit crop size. In contrast, probability of fruit removal, the number of fruits removed, and the proportion of fruits removed by the non-disperser increased with increasing seasonal fruit crop sizes. The observed differences between disperser and non-disperser are due to differences in feeding capacity, group size and foraging behavior. Tamarins were less likely to harvest Leonia trees that were not or less completely covered by surrounding vegetation. This probably reflects a behavior to avoid predation by forest raptors. At high con-specific fruit abundance in the neighborhood, the proportion of fruits removed by tamarins was reduced. This suggests competition of trees for the disperser. My study revealed selection of the disperser on seasonal fruit crop size of L. cymosa. My results are consistent with the “fruit crop size hypothesis”. FCSH appears to constitute a valid framework also in the monkey-dispersed L. cymosa. My findings also show that factors beyond the tree’s control influenced fruit removal from Leonia trees. Disperser-mediated selection may be constrained (yet not impeded) by neighborhood conditions.
Morphologie und Organisation individueller oktopaminerger Neurone im Gehirn von Drosophila m.
(2009)
Das biogene Amin Oktopamin moduliert verschiedene Verhaltensweisen in Invertebraten. In verschiedenen Insektenspezies, wie Heuschrecken, Grillen oder Schaben, ist die Funktion und die Architektur des peripheren oktopaminergen Systems auf Einzelzellebene bekannt. Um die zelluläre Grundlage für die verschiedenen Funktionen von Oktopamin im Zentralnervensystem zu verstehen, ist eine detaillierte Analyse der Architektur des zentralen oktopaminergen Systems notwendig. Innerhalb meiner Doktorarbeit fertigte eine anatomische Karte individueller oktopaminerger Neurone des adulten Hirns von Drosophila an. Ich nutzte die Flp-out Technik, um einzelne oktopaminerge Neurone anzufärben. Anhand ihrer Projektionsmuster konnte ich 28 verschiedene Zelltypen in vier Oktopamin-immunoreaktiven Zellclustern identifizieren. Ihre Morphologie sowie die Verteilung genetischer Marker zeigte, dass die meisten Zelltypen mehrere Neuropile innervieren und dabei eine klare Trennung von Prä- und Postsynaptischen Regionen aufweisen. Die Mehrheit der Zelltypen bildet dendritische Verzweigungen in einer bestimmten Region, der posterioren Slope. Jedoch innerviert jeder Zelltyp stereotyp eine bestimmte Kombination von Zielregionen im Gehirn. Das deutet stark darauf hin, dass oktopaminerge Neurone kombinatorisch organisiert sind: Jedes individuelle Neuron scheint Komponente eines spezifischen neuronalen Schaltkreises zu sein. Dabei könnte jeder Zelltyp eine Art “Modul” darstellen, das selektiv bestimmte Funktionen in den jeweiligen Zielregionen moduliert. Das oktopaminerge Mittelliniencluster des Subösophagealen Ganglions zeigt eine besondere zelluläre Organisation. Es besteht aus gepaarten und ungepaarten Neuronen, die des Zentralgehirn mit extensiven Verzweigungen versorgen. Um die Ordnung hinter dieser komplexen Organisation zu verstehen, wurden die segmentale Organistion der Mittellinienneurone auf Einzelzellebene analysiert und ihre embryonalen Anlagen verglichen. Letzteres ermöglichte die morphologische Analyse von einzelnen oktopaminergen Mittellinienklonen. OA-VPM und OA-VUM Neurone bilden zusammen drei Subcluster im Subösophagealen Ganglion, die wahrscheinlich die drei gnathalen Neuromere repräsentieren. Alle OA-VUM Neurone stammen von der embryonalen Mittellinie ab. In den mandibularen und maxillaren Neuromeren formen sie morphologisch identische Zelltypen, mit stereotypen Innervationsmustern. OA-VPM Neurone gehen nicht aus der embryonalen Mittellinie hervor und sind nicht segmental dupliziert. Diese Arbeit vermittelt nicht nur einen Eindruck über die Architektur individueller oktopaminerger Neurone, sondern auch über die Organisation des oktopaminergen Systems auf Einzelzellebene.
Mechanisms and adaptive significance of interspecific associations between tropical ant species
(2009)
Aggression between ants from different colonies or species is ubiquitous. Exceptions to this rule exist in the form of supercolonies (within a species) and interspecific associations (between species). Probably the most intimate interspecific association is the parabiosis, where two ant species live together in a common nest. They keep their brood separate but jointly use trails and often share food resources. Parabioses are restricted to few species pairings and occur in South American and Southeast Asian rainforests. While the South American parabioses have been studied, albeit poorly, almost nothing is known about their Southeast Asian counterparts. My PhD project focuses on Southeast Asian parabioses between the myrmicine Crematogaster modiglianii Emery 1900 and the considerably larger formicine Camponotus rufifemur Emery 1900. The two species frequently nest together in hollow trees in the tropical lowland rainforest of Borneo. The basic question of my PhD project is why these two species live together. I investigated both proximate and ultimate aspects of this question. For comparative purposes, I included studies on a trail-sharing association in the same habitat. On the proximate level, I investigated which mechanisms facilitate tolerance towards hetero-spe¬ci¬fic nestmates. Ants generally discriminate nestmates from non-nestmates via cuticular hydro¬carbons that function as colony recognition cues. I studied the specificity of nestmate recognition within and between the two parabiotic species. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), I analyzed the cuticular substances in both ant species to find potential differences to non-parabiotic species, and to estimate the substance overlap among the two species. A high substance overlap would e.g. suggest that interspecific tolerance is caused by chemical mimicry. Finally, bioassays were conducted to evaluate the function of different cuticular compounds. Interspecific tolerance in the two parabiotic species was species-specific but not colony-specific. Ca. rufifemur tolerated all Cr. modiglianii individuals, even those from foreign colonies, but strongly attacked workers of other Crematogaster species. Cr. modiglianii, in turn, tolerated Ca. rufifemur workers of certain foreign colonies but attacked those of others. Chemical analyses revealed two sympatric, chemically distinct Ca. rufifemur varieties (‘red’ and ‘black’) with almost no hydrocarbon overlap. Cr. modiglianii only tolerated foreign Ca. rufifemur workers if they belonged to the same chemical variety as their own Ca. rufifemur partner. It also attacked other, non-parabiotic Camponotus species. Thus, reciprocal interspecific tolerance was restricted to the species Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur frequently tolerated conspecific non-nestmates of the same chemical variety. Minor workers were more often tolerated than majors, possibly because they possess two to three times lower hydrocarbon quantities per body surface than majors. In contrast, Cr. modiglianii nearly always attacked conspecific non-nestmates. Both species possessed hydrocarbons with considerably higher chain lengths than congeneric, non-parabiotic ant species. Long-chain hydrocarbons are less volatile than shorter ones and thus harder to perceive. They may thus considerably facilitate interspecific tolerance. Moreover, up to 98% of the cuticular hydrocarbons in Ca. rufifemur were methylbranched alkenes, which are highly unusual among insect cuticular hydrocarbons. Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur had almost no hydrocarbons in common, refuting chemical mimicry as a possible cause of interspecific tolerance. The only hydrocarbons common to both species were two methylbranched alkenes, which constituted 89% of the ‘red’ Ca. rufifemur hydrocarbon profile and also occurred in those Cr. modiglianii colonies that lived together with this Ca. rufifemur variety. Cr. modiglianii presumably acquired these two compounds from its red Ca. rufifemur partner. Cr. modiglianii was significantly less aggressive towards foreign Cr. modiglianii workers that were associated with the same Ca. rufifemur variety than to those associated with the respective other one. Hence, this species seemed to use recognition cues acquired from its parabiotic partner. Apart from hydrocarbons, both species possessed a set of hitherto unknown substances on their cuticle. The quantitative composition of the unknown compounds varied between parabiotic nests but was similar among the two species of a nest. They are probably produced in the Dufour glanf of Cr. modiglianii and transferred to their Ca. rufifemur partner. Possible transfer mechanisms include interspecific trophallaxis and ‘mounting behaviour’, where Cr. modiglianii climbed onto Ca. rufifemur workers without being displaced. Although the composition of the unknown compounds greatly varied between nests, they did not function as nestmate recognition cues since both species used hydrocarbons for nestmate recognition. However, the unknown compounds significantly reduced aggression in Ca. rufifemur. The ultimate, i.e. ecological and evolutionary aspects of my PhD research deal with potential costs and benefits that Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur may derive from the parabiotic association, their interactions with other species, and population genetic analyses. Additional studies on a trail-sharing association between three other ant species deal with two possible mechanisms that may cause or facilitate trail-sharing. Whether parabioses are parasitic, commensalistic, or mutualistic, is largely unknown and depends on the costs and benefits each party derives from the association. I therefore investigated food competition (as one of the most probable costs), differentiation of foraging niches (which can reduce competition), and several potential benefits of the parabiotic way of life. Besides, I studied interactions between the ant species and the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium. The foraging niches of the two species differed regarding foraging range, daily activity pattern, and food preferences. None of the two species aggressively displaced its partner species from baits. Thus, interference competition for food seemed to be low or absent. For both ant species, a number of benefits from the parabiotic lifestyle seem possible. They include interspecific trail-following, joint nest defence, provision of nest space by the partner species, food exchange via trophallaxis, and mutual brood care. If an ant species follows another species’ pheromone trails, it can reach food resources found by the other species. As shown by artificial extract trails, Ca. rufifemur workers indeed followed trails of Cr. modiglianii but not vice versa. Thus, Ca. rufifemur benefited from Cr. modiglianii’s knowledge on food sources (informational parasitism). In turn, Cr. modiglianii seemed to profit from nest defence by Ca. rufifemur. Ca. rufifemur majors are substantially larger than Cr. modiglianii workers. Although Cr. modiglianii often effectively defended the nest as well, it seemed likely that this species derived a benefit from its partner’s defensive abilities. In neotropical parabioses (ant-gardens), mutualistic epiphytes play an important role in providing nest space. The neotropical Camponotus benefits its Crematogaster partner by planting epiphyte seeds, for which Crematogaster is too small. Similarly, the Bornean parabioses often were inhabited by the hemiepiphyte Poikilospermum cordifolium (Barg.-Petr.) Merr (Cecropiaceae). P. cordifolium seedlings, saplings and sometimes larger indivi¬duals abundantly grew at the entrances of parabiotic nests. However, P. cordifolium provides no additional nest space and, apart from nutritive elaiosomes, perianths, and extrafloral nectar probably plays a less important role for the ants than the neotropical epiphytes. In conclusion, the parabiosis is probably beneficial to both species. The main benefits seem to be nest defence (for Cr. modiglianii) and interspecific trail-following (for Ca. rufifemur). However, Ca. rufifemur seems to be more dependent on its partner than vice versa. For both parabiotic species, I analyzed mitochondrial DNA of ants from different regions in Borneo. My data suggest that there are four genetically and chemically distinct, but closely related varieties of Camponotus rufifemur. In contrast, Crematogaster modiglianii showed high genetic differentiation between distant populations but was not differentiated into genetic or chemical varieties. This argues against variety-specific cocladogenesis between Cr. modiglianii and Ca. rufifemur, although a less specific coevolution of the two species is highly likely. In Bornean rainforests, trail-sharing associations of Polyrhachis (Polyrhachis) ypsilon Emery 1887 and Camponotus (Colobopsis) saundersi Emery 1889 are common and often include further species such as Dolichoderus cuspidatus Smith 1857. I investigated a trail-sharing association between these three species and studied two mechanisms that may cause or facilitate these associations: interspecific trail-following, i.e. workers following another species’ pheromone trail, and differential inter¬specific aggression. In trail-following assays, D. cuspidatus regularly followed extract trails of the other two species, thus probably parasitizing on their information on food sources. In contrast, only few P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi workers followed hetero¬speci¬fic extract trails. Hence, the association between P. ypsilon and Ca. saundersi cannot be ex¬plained by foragers following heterospecific trails. In this case, trail-sharing may originate from few scout ants that do follow heterospecific pheromone trails and then lay their own trails. Interspecific aggression among P. ypsilon, Ca. saundersi and D. cuspidatus was strongly asymmetric, Ca. saundersi being submissive to the other two species. All three species discriminated between heterospecific workers from the same and a distant trail-sharing site. Thus, it seems likely that the species of a given trail-sharing site habituate to one another. Differential tolerance by dominant ant species may be mediated by selective habituation towards submissive species, and thereby influence the assembly of trail-sharing associations.
Ameisen der Gattung Camponotus beherbergen bakterielle Symbionten der Gattung Blochmannia in spezialisierten Zellen des Mitteldarms (Blochmann, 1882; Buchner, 1965; Sauer, 2000; Schröder et al., 1996). Die Genomsequenzierung dieser Symbionten zeigte, dass Blochmannia, ähnlich den Symbionten von Blattläusen, hauptsächlich Gene der Aminosäurebiosynthese beibehalten hat (Degnan et al., 2005; Gil et al., 2003). Die Relevanz dieser nahrungsaufwertenden Funktion konnte experimentell bestätigt werden (Feldhaar et al., 2007). Ein Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Aufklärung der dynamischen Interaktion der beiden Partner während des komplexen Lebenszyklus des holometabolen Wirtes. Frühere Studien deuteten darauf hin, dass die Symbiose vor allem während der Larven- und Puppenphasen von Bedeutung sein könnte (Feldhaar et al., 2007; Wolschin et al., 2004; Zientz et al., 2006). Mit fluoreszenter in situ Hybridisierung (FISH) und konfokaler Laserscanning Mikroskopie konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Lokalisierung von B. floridanus während der wichtigsten Entwicklungsstadien aufgeklärt werden. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Symbionten schon im ersten Larvenstadium in spezialisierten Zellen um den Darm angeordnet sind, aber in späteren Stadien nicht, wie bisher angenommen, auf diese Bakteriozyten beschränkt sind, sondern bis zum Schlupf der jungen Arbeiterinnen massiv andere Darmzellen infizieren. Übereinstimmend mit Bestimmungen der Zellzahl in den verschiedenen Wirtsstadien ist die Anzahl der Symbionten gegen Ende der Metamorphose am höchsten. Die Symbiose degeneriert in sehr alten Arbeiterinnen, gut gefüllte Bakteriozyten werden jedoch noch monatelang beibehalten. Mit Macroarray- und qRT- PCR- basierten Transkriptomanalysen wurde die Expression der bakteriellen Gene in charakteristischen Entwicklungsstadien des Wirtes untersucht. Allgemein zeigen vor allem Gene für molekulare Chaperons und bestimmte bakterielle Grundfunktionen eine hohe Expression. Aber auch viele Gene, die möglicherweise wichtige Funktionen in der Symbiose besitzen, wie die Biosynthese essentieller Aminosäuren und das Recycling von Stickstoffverbindungen, zeigen ein hohes absolutes Transkriptlevel. Zudem besteht eine positive Korrelation zwischen dem Expressionsniveau und dem GC- Gehalt der Gene, die in dem höheren Selektionsdruck und damit einer geringeren Mutationsrate der essentiellen Gene begründet liegt (Schaber et al., 2005). Durch Proteinanalysen konnte bestätigt werden, dass die Faktoren mit der höchsten absoluten Transkription die dominanten Proteine der Symbionten darstellen. In den unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstadien zeigen viele Gene eine deutliche Dynamik, deren Ausmaß aber, verglichen mit freilebenden Bakterien, gering ist. Aus den Expressionsprofilen aufeinanderfolgender Gene lassen sich mögliche Transkriptionseinheiten ableiten, die teilweise auch experimentell bestätigt wurden. Oftmals zeigen auch Gene, die nicht in Transkriptionseinheiten angeordnet sind, aber verwandten Stoffwechselwegen angehören, ähnliche Muster. Dies deutet auf das Vorhandensein grundlegender Genregulations-mechanismen hin, obwohl im Genom von B. floridanus nur noch sehr wenige Transkriptionsfaktoren codiert sind (Gil et al., 2003). Auf übergeordneter Ebene zeigt sich, dass bei Symbionten aus späten Puppenstadien viele symbioserelevante Gene im Vergleich zu Genen des Grundmetabolismus eine erhöhte Expression zeigen. Dies betrifft besonders die Biosynthese aromatischer und verzweigter Aminosäuren, die in diesen Stadien vom Wirt in hoher Menge benötigt werden, während die internen Reserven gleichzeitig zur Neige gehen. Dies äußert sich auch im deutlichen Abfallen der Speicherproteinmenge des Wirts gegen Ende der Puppenphase. Die festgestellte Veränderung der Symbiontenzahl übertrifft das geringe Ausmaß der Genregulation um ein Vielfaches. Die Bakterien liegen in jedem Stadium polyploid mit bis zu 100 Genomkopien vor, dieser Polyploidiegrad bleibt jedoch während der gesamten Wirtsentwicklung weitestgehend konstant. Somit scheint die Kontrolle des Wirts über die bakterielle Vermehrung der entscheidende Faktor dieser Symbiose zu sein. Die verbleibenden regulatorischen Fähigkeiten der Bakterien stellen möglicherweise eine Feinjustierung von optimierten Produktionseinheiten dar, deren Anzahl nach den Bedürfnissen des Wirtes verändert wird. Insgesamt konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit neue Einblicke in das komplexe Zusammenleben von Blochmannia und Camponotus gewonnen werden, die zu einem besseren Verständnis der biologischen Funktion und der grundlegenden Mechanismen dieser Symbiose führen. Eine der wichtigsten Fragestellungen nach dem Sinn einer nahrungsaufwertenden Symbiose für einen Nahrungsgeneralisten konnte mit starken Hinweisen auf eine stadienabhängige Relevanz der Symbiose beantwortet werden, die den enormen evolutionären Erfolg dieser Ameisengattung erklären könnte. 
Von TRAIL, FasL und APRIL, drei Mitgliedern der TNF-Liganden-Familie, ist bekannt, dass Trimerstabilität und Oligomerisierungsstatus maßgeblich das Rezeptoraktivierungspotential dieser Liganden beeinflussen. Für die immunstimulatorischen TNF-Liganden CD27L, CD40L, OX40L, 41BBL und GITRL war hingegen vor der Durchführung dieser Arbeit praktisch nicht bekannt, inwieweit Trimerbildung, Stabilisierung und Oligomerisierung wichtig für deren Aktitvität sind. Dies wurde in dieser Arbeit systematisch untersucht. CD40L besaß bereits als trimeres Molekül eine hohe Aktivität, die durch sekundäre Oligomerisierung nur wenig gesteigert wurde. Die spezifische Aktivität konnte durch Stabilisierung mit Hilfe der Tenascin-C (TNC)-Trimerisierungsdomäne nur geringfügig gesteigert werden. CD27L war als lösliches Flag-markiertes sowie als hexameres Fc-Protein selbst nach Quervernetzen nicht in der Lage, seinen Rezeptor CD27 zu binden und zu aktivieren. Die TNC-stabilisierte trimere Form des CD27L hingegen induzierte nach Oligomerisierung mit einem anti-Flag-Antikörper ein starkes Signal. Trimerer OX40L und trimerer 41BBL konnten nur in oligomerisierter Form ihre Rezeptoren aktivieren, wobei die Aktivität der TNC-stabilisierten Form signifikant stärker ausgeprägt war. GITRL aktivierte seinen Rezeptor bereits als stabilisiertes Trimer und Hexamer, die Aktivität konnte durch Quervernetzen nur gering gesteigert werden. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, dass CD27L, OX40L und 41BBL zu der Untergruppe der TNF-Ligandenfamilie gehört, für die eine Stabilisierung des trimeren Moleküls und dessen Oligomerisierung nötig sind, um eine starke Rezeptoraktivierung zu ermöglichen. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten CD40L und GITRL bereits oligomerisierungsunabhängig eine hohe Aktivität. GITRL benötigte allerdings die Stabilisierung des trimeren Moleküls durch die TNC-Domäne, um gute Aktivität zu zeigen. Im Weiteren wurden Antikörperfragment (scFv-)-TNF-Ligand-Fusionsproteine konstruiert und untersucht, die ein Zelloberflächenantigen binden. Eine starke Zelloberflächenantigen-spezifische Aktivierung des jeweiligen Rezeptors konnte für scFv-41BBL und für scFv-OX40L gezeigt werden, wohingegen scFv-CD40L und scFv-GITRL bereits auf antigennegativen Zellen stark aktiv waren. scFv-CD27L war selbst auf antigenpositiven Zellen inaktiv. Verwendet man an Stelle des Antikörperfragments eine extrazelluläre Proteinbindedomäne, z.B. die eines TNF-Rezeptors, erhält man Fusionsproteine, die zum einen eine selektive Aktivierung der TNF-Ligandendomäne und somit die Aktivierung des korrespondierenden Rezeptors auf der Zielzelle ermöglichen, zum anderen aber durch die Bindung an den membranständigen Liganden dessen Aktitvät neutralisieren können. Für CD40-, RANK- und B7-2-FasL konnte der immobilisationabhängige Aktivierungseffekt auf entsprechenden Zelloberflächenmolekül-exprimierenden Zellen gezeigt werden. Anhand von T47D-Zellen, die durch eine autokrine CD40L-CD40-Signalschleife vor Apoptose geschützt sind, konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Bindung von CD40-FasL an membranständigen CD40L die CD40L-CD40-Interaktion gestört und gleichzeitig Apoptose verstärkt induziert werden kann. Das Prinzip der antigenabhängigen Aktivierung von TNF-Liganden könnte Anwendung in der Tumortherapie finden, da bei Verwendung entsprechender selektiv exprimierter Marker eine lokale Rezeptoraktivierung erreicht und so Nebenwirkungen minimiert werden können.
Study of the properties of channel-forming proteins of the cell walls of different Corynebacteriae
(2008)
The genus Corynebacterium belongs, together with Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus and further closely related genera, to the distinctive suprageneric taxon mycolata. Many species within this diverse group of mycolic acid containing actinomycetes are known either because of their medical or biotechnological relevance. For instance, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Nocardia farcinica, causer of most dangerous bacterial infectious diseases world-wide, are among this exceptional group of Gram-positive bacteria. Likewise of importance are some harmless mycolata species which find use in industrial settings. Corynebacterium glutamicum and Corynebacterium efficiens are, e.g., potent producers of the flavour enhancer glutamate and the animal feed additive lysine, while several Rhodococcus species are applied in the production of acrylic acids. The cell wall of mycolata species, compared with that of Gram-positive bacteria, exhibits an unusual composition and organization. Besides an arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex, the cell walls of most actinomycetes contain large amounts of mycolic acids. Comparable to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, these long-chained branched fatty acids form a highly impermeable hydrophobic outer layer which provides the basis of the exceptional drug resistance of mycolata species. Like the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall of mycolata contains channel-forming proteins that allow the passage of hydrophilic solutes. By permitting and controlling the exchange and communication between the interior of the cell and the environment in which the bacterium lives, the channels play an important role for the function of the bacterial cell envelope. This thesis aimed to extend our knowledge about cell wall channels in corynebacteria. For this purpose, we examined PorA and PorH proteins that have been associated by previous studies with cell wall pores in C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and Corynebacterium callunae in order to resolve unanswered questions and to gain structural knowledge. We also investigated cell walls of pathogenic corynebacteria, in particular of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium jeikeium, to investigate if these species possessed channels as is the case with their harmless relatives. In this work we provided evidence for the existence of large and water-filled cell wall channels in C. diphtheriae and C. jeikeium. Moreover, we demonstrated that the major cell wall channels of C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and C. diphtheriae consist of two distinctive polypeptides; one of whom belongs to the class of PorH proteins and the other to the class of PorA proteins. This heteromeric structure of channels of corynebacteria represents a novelty for channels of the mycolata. In contrast, the C. jeikeium channel is solely constituted by a single protein, CjPorA, arranged as an oligomer. Although the molecular mass of this protein (4kDa) is comparable to those of PorH and PorA proteins (5-7 kDa), it shares no distinctive homology in its primary sequence with them. However, there is evidence for relationship between CjPorA and PorH/PorA proteins because the gene jk0268, coding for CjPorA, is localized in a chromosomal region of C. jeikeium that corresponds to the genomic region containing the porH/porA genes in the other corynebacteria. This suggests that jk0268 (coding for the homomeric cell wall channel in C. jeikeium) and the porH/porA genes of C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and C. diphtheriae (coding for heteromeric cell wall channels) are presumably descendants of a common ancestor gene. This assumption gets support from data on phylogenetic analysis of the genus Corynebacterium. Moreover, these data suggest that the here investigated cell wall channels are presumably widespread within this genus. A profound knowledge of cell wall channels, building the main passage of solutes through the outer mycolate membrane in corynebacteria and other members of the mycolata, can be of great economical and medical value.
Übertragbare spongiforme Enzephalopathien (TSE) wie Scrapie beim Schaf, die bovine spongiforme Enzephalopathie (BSE) beim Rind oder die Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Krankheit (CJD) beim Menschen sind fortschreitende neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, die nach langer Inkubationszeit zum Tod führen. Die protein only-Hypothese besagt, dass das infektiöse Agens „Prion“ teilweise oder vollständig aus dem zellulären Prion-Protein (PrPC) besteht und nach Infektion des Organismus die Konversion von PrPC in die pathogene Isoform (PrPSc) verursacht. Die der Krankheit zugrunde liegenden neuropathologischen Mechanismen und die physiologische Funktion von PrPC sind bisher unbekannt. Es wurden jedoch eine neuroprotektive Funktion oder eine mögliche Rolle im Zusammenhang mit der oxidativen Stress Homöostase postuliert. In dieser Arbeit wurden transgene Drosophila melanogaster-Linien als Modell zur Untersuchung der Funktion von PrPC etabliert. Unter Verwendung des Expressionssystems UAS/GAL4 exprimierten die Fliegen entweder wildtypisches PrP (wt-PrP) oder eine trunkierte, krankheits-assoziierte Mutante PrPΔ32-134 (tr-PrP), der die potentielle neuroprotektive Octarepeat-Domäne entfernt wurde. Wt-PrP transgene Fliegen zeigten nach Vergleich mit Kontrolllinien eine signifikante, um 20% erhöhte allgemeine Lebenserwartung. Obwohl die Expression von tr-PrP in Drosophila zu keinen nachweisbaren neuropathologischen Veränderungen führte, wurde die Lebensspanne um 8% reduziert. Ko-Expression von wt-PrP und tr-PrP konnte diesen Effekt nicht komplementieren, was eine chronische Toxizität der trunkierten Form nahelegt, die in diesem Zusammenhang der Neuroprotektion übergeordnet ist. Da Lebenserwartung und Stressresistenz eng miteinander korrelieren, wurden die Fliegen den reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies Wasserstoffperoxid, Sauerstoff und Paraquat ausgesetzt, um auf drei unabhängigen Wegen oxidativen Stress zu induzieren. In der Tat vermittelt wt-PrP eine signifikante Stressresistenz, wohingegen tr-PrP-exprimierende Tiere eine normale Anfälligkeit offenbarten, die jedoch teilweise durch Ko-Expression beider PrP-Formen komplementiert werden konnte. Hier erscheint die protektive Funktion von wt-PrP der Toxizität der Deletionsmutante übergeordnet zu sein. Diese Daten belegen eine wichtige Funktion des Prion-Proteins bezüglich der Abwehr von oxidativem Stress. Essentiell ist dabei die Kupfer-bindende Octarepeat-Domäne, durch die möglicherweise Fenton-ähnliche Reaktionen, die bei der Sauerstoff-Radikalsynthese eine wichtige Rolle spielen, inhibiert werden könnten. Konsistent damit ist die Beobachtung des Verlusts der erworbenen Stressresistenz nach Expression der Octarepeat-losen Mutante tr-PrP und die signifikante Reduktion der Lebenserwartung über einen bislang unaufgeklärten Mechanismus. Das Drosophila PrP-Modell bietet die Möglichkeit, die physiologische Funktion von PrP detailliert zu untersuchen. Außerdem ist die Identifizierung unbekannter PrP-Interaktionspartner ermöglicht, um Signaltransduktionswege des PrP und die zugrunde liegenden neurodegenerativen Mechanismen aufzuklären.
Towards localizing the Synapsin-dependent olfactory memory trace in the brain of larval Drosophila
(2008)
Animals need to adapt and modify their behaviour according to a changing environment. In particular, the ability to learn about rewarding or punishing events is crucial for survival. One key process that underlies such learning are modifications of the synaptic connection between nerve cells. This Thesis is concerned with the genetic determinants of such plasticity, and with the site of these modifications along the sensory-to-motor loops in Drosophila olfactory learning. I contributed to the development and detailed parametric description of an olfactory associative learning paradigm in larval fruit flies (Chapter I.1.). The robustness of this learning assay, together with a set of transgenic Drosophila strains established during this Thesis, enabled me to study the role for Synapsin, a presynaptic phosphoprotein likely involved in synaptic plasticity, in this form of learning (Chapter I.2.), and to investigate the cellular site of the corresponding Synapsin-dependent memory trace (Chapter I.3.). These data provide the first comprehensive account to-date of the neurogenetic bases of learning in larval Drosophila. The role for Synapsin was also analyzed with regard to pain-relief learning in adult fruit flies (Chapter II.1.); that is, if an odour precedes an electric shock during training, flies subsequently avoid that odour (‘punishment learning’), whereas presentation of the odour upon the cessation of shock subsequently leads to approach towards the odour (‘relief larning’). Such pain-relief learning was also the central topic of a study concerning the white gene (Chapter II.2.), which as we report does affect pain-relief as well as punishment learning in adult flies, but leaves larval odour-food learning unaffected. These studies regarding pain-relief learning provide the very first hints, in any experimental system, concerning the genetic determinants of this form of learning.
Bakterien sind in der Lage, sich schnell an wechselnde Umweltbedingungen anzupassen. Eine wichtige Rolle bei der Wahrnehmung von verschiedensten Umweltreizen und der zellulären Antwort spielt die Genregulation durch Zweikomponenten-Systeme. Gut charakterisiert ist das ArsRS Zweikomomponenten-System in H. pylori, welches an der Ausbildung der Säureresistenz beteiligt ist und dem Bakterium so die Kolonisierung der Magenschleimhaut ermöglicht. Die Histidin-Kinase ArsS wird in Gegenwart von Säure aktiviert und phosphoryliert den Response-Regulator ArsR, der die Transkription von Target-Genen reguliert. In der periplasmatischen Sensordomäne der Histidin-Kinase ArsS sind sieben Histidinreste vorhanden, die aufgrund ihres pKa-Wertes von 6,0 bei Absenken des pH Wertes von pH 7 auf pH 5, was eine Aktivierung der Histidin-Kinase zur Folge hat, protoniert werden könnten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Histidinrest H94 der periplasmatischen Sensordomäne einen wesentliche Rolle bei der Säurewahrnehmung durch die Histidin-Kinase ArsS spielt. Die Einführung einer positiv geladenen AS an dieser Position allein reicht jedoch nicht aus, um die Kinase zu aktivieren, weshalb unklar bleibt, ob eine Protonierung des Histidinrestes H94 in vivo die Säurewahrnehmung vermittelt. Weiterhin konnten Indizien darauf erhalten werden, dass neben dem Histidinrest H94 noch weitere Aminosäuren an der Säurewahrnehmung durch die Histidin-Kinase beteiligt sind. Der Aspartatrest D124 leistet unter den negativ geladenen AS vermutlich den größten Beitrag zur Säurewahrnehmung. In den mit H. pylori nahe verwandten Arten Helicobacter hepaticus, Wolinella succinogenes und Campylobacter jejuni sind Orthologe zu dem ArsRS Zweikomponenten-System vorhanden. Um zu untersuchen, ob es sich bei der Säurewahrnehmung durch die Histidin-Kinase ArsS um eine spezifische Anpassung von H. pylori an sein Habitat handelt oder ob Säure einen allgemeinen Stimulus der ArsS-orthologen Kinasen darstellt, wurden Mutanten im genetischen Hintergrund von H. pylori G27 konstruiert, in welchen die Histidin-Kinase ArsS durch die orthologen Kinasen HH1608, CJ1262 und WS1818 substituiert wurde. Durch Transkriptionsstudien konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Kinase WS1818 eine gesteigerte Aktivität bei saurem pH-Wert aufweist. Auch die Kinase HH1607 kann Säure als einen Umweltreiz wahrnehmen, jedoch deutlich weniger effektiv als die Kinasen ArsS und WS1818. Ob die Zweikomponenten-Systeme HH1608/HH1607 und WS1817/WS1818 in vivo in H. hepaticus und W. succinogenes an der Wahrnehmung von Säure und evtl. an der Ausbildung einer Säureresistenz beteiligt sind, ist unklar, da über die Funktion dieser Zweikomponenten-Systeme bisher nichts bekannt ist. Die Kinase CJ1262 ist nicht in der Lage, Säure als einen Umweltreiz wahrzunehmen. Die beiden Response-Regulatoren HP1043 und HP1021 spielen vermutlich eine Rolle bei der Regulation von Genen, deren Produkte eine wichtige Funktion für das vegetative Zellwachstum haben. Die Aktivität der beiden RR wird entgegen dem gängigen Zweikomponenten-System-Paradigma nicht über eine Phosphorylierung moduliert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde analysiert, ob eine strikte Expressionskontrolle für die wachstumsassoziierten Funktion dieser Response-Regulatoren von Bedeutung ist. Zu diesem Zweck wurden verschieden Mutanten konstruiert, in welchen die Transkription der Gene hp1021 und hp1043 unter der Kontrolle von unterschiedlich regulierten Promotoren stattfindet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Expression des Gens hp1043 sowohl transkriptionell als auch posttranskriptionell und/oder posttranslational strikt reguliert wird. Es kann deshalb postuliert werden, dass die Aktivität des RR HP1043 über die vorhandene Konzentration an Regulator in der Bakterienzelle beeinflusst wird. Die Expression des Gens hp1021 wird nicht strikt reguliert. Auf welche Weise die Aktivität des RR HP1021 moduliert wird, bleibt unklar.
Die Kernhülle ist eine hoch spezialisierte Membran, die den eukaryotischen Zellkern umgibt. Sie besteht aus der äußeren und der inneren Kernmembran, die über die Kernporenkomplexe miteinander verbunden werden. Die Kernhülle reguliert nicht nur den Transport von Makromolekülen zwischen dem Nukleoplasma und dem Zytoplasma, sie dient auch der Verankerung des Chromatins und des Zytoskeletts. Durch diese Interaktionen hilft die Kernhülle, den Zellkern innerhalb der Zelle und die Chromosomen innerhalb des Zellkerns zu positionieren, und reguliert dadurch die Expression bestimmter Gene. In höheren Eukaryoten durchlaufen sowohl die Kernhülle, als auch die Kernporenkomplexe während der Zellteilung strukturelle Veränderungen. Zu Beginn der Mitose werden sie abgebaut, um sich am Ende der Mitose in den Tochterzellen erneut zu bilden. Die molekularen Mechanismen, die zum Wiederaufbau der Kernhülle führen, sind kaum geklärt. Ein geeignetes System, um bestimmte Ereignisse bei der Kernhüllenbildung zu untersuchen, liefert das zellfreie System aus Xenopus Eiern und Spermienchromatin (Lohka 1998). Es konnte bereits früher gezeigt werden, dass es im Eiextrakt von Xenopus laevis mindestens zwei verschiedene Vesikelpopulationen gibt, die zur Bildung der Kernhülle beitragen. Eine der Vesikelpopulationen bindet an Chromatin, fusioniert dort und bildet eine Doppelmembran. Die andere Vesikelpopulation bindet an die bereits vorhandene Doppelmembran und sorgt für die Ausbildung der Kernporenkomplexe. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, diese beiden Membranfraktionen zu isolieren und zu charakterisieren, wobei das Hauptinteresse in der porenbildenden Membranfraktion lag. Durch Zentrifugation über einen diskontinuierlichen Zuckergradienten konnten die Membranvesikel in zwei verschiedene Vesikelfraktionen aufgetrennt werden. Eine Membranfraktion konnte aus der 40%igen Zuckerfraktion („40% Membranfraktion“) isoliert werden, die andere aus der 30%igen Zuckerfraktion („30% Membranfraktion“). Die verschiedenen Membranfraktionen wurden zu in vitro Kernen gegeben, in denen die Kernporen durch vorausgegangene Bildung von Annulate Lamellae depletiert worden waren. Nach Zugabe der 30% Membranfraktion konnte die Bildung von funktionalen Kernporen beobachtet werden. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigte die 40% Membranfraktion keine porenbildenden Eigenschaften. Unter Verwendung eines vereinfachten Systems, bestehend aus Zytosol, Spermienchromatin und den Membranen, wurde gezeigt, dass die 40% Membranfraktion an Chromatin bindet und ausreichend ist, um eine kontinuierliche Doppelmembran ohne Kernporen zu bilden. Die 30% Membranfraktion besitzt keine Chromatinbindungseigenschaften und wird aktiv entlang von Mikrotubuli zu den porenlosen Kernen transportiert. Dort interagiert sie mit der chromatingebundenen 40% Membranfraktion und induziert die Porenbildung. Nach dem Vergleich der Proteinzusammensetzung der beiden Membranfraktionen, konnte das Major Vault Protein (MVP) nur in der porenbildenden Membranfraktion gefunden werden. MVP ist die Hauptstrukturkomponente der Vault-Komplexe, einem Ribonukleo-proteinpartikel, der in den meisten eukaryotischen Zellen vorhanden ist (Kedersha et al., 1991). Bemerkenswerterweise wird über die Funktion der Vault-Komplexe, trotz ihrer übiquitären Expression und ihrem Vorkommen in fast allen eukaryotischen Zellen, immer noch diskutiert. Um mehr über die Funktion und die Lokalisation der Vaults/MVP zu lernen, wurden die Vaults in Anlehnung an die Methode von Kedersha und Rome (1986) aus Xenopus Eiern isoliert. Zusätzlich wurde rekombinantes Xenopus MVP hergestellt, das unter anderem für die Produktion von Antikörpern in Meerschweinchen verwendet wurde. Um herauszufinden, ob die Anwesenheit von MVP in der 30% Membranfraktion in direktem Zusammenhang mit deren porenbildender Eigenschaft steht, wurden gereinigte Vault-Komplexe oder rekombinantes MVP, das alleine ausreichend ist, um in sich zu den charakteristischen Vault-Strukturen zusammenzulagern, zu porenlosen Kernen gegeben. Sowohl gereinigte Vault-Komplexe, als auch rekombinantes MVP waren in der Lage in den porenlosen Kernen die Bildung von funktionalen Kernporen zu induzieren. Untersuchungen zur Lokalisation von MVP zeigten, dass MVP teilweise an der Kernhülle und den Kernporenkomplexen lokalisiert, während der Großteil an MVP zytoplasmatisch vorliegt. Dies sind die ersten Daten, die Vaults/MVP mit der Kernporenbildung in Verbindung bringen. Deshalb bietet diese Arbeit die Grundlage, um diese unerwartete Rolle der Vaults in Zukunft genauer zu charakterisieren.
Im Jahre 2004 wurden in unserem Labor zwei Gene einer neuen Proteinfamilie kloniert, deren Charakterisierung seither im Gange ist. Das eine Protein, VKORC1, konnte durch Mutationsanalysen und biochemische Untersuchungen als eine zentrale Komponente des so genannten Vitamin K-Zyklus identifiziert werden. Vitamin K wird für die γ-Carboxylierung der Vitamin K-abhängigen Proteine wie z.B. der Gerinnungsfaktoren II, VII, IX und X als Cofaktor der γ-Glutamyl-Carboxylase benötigt. Da Vitamin K essentiell ist, wird seine Epoxidform vom Organismus wieder in eine physiologisch aktive Hydrochinon-Form überführt. Für diese Reaktion wird die Vitamin K-Epoxid-Reduktase (VKORC1) benötigt. Mutationen in VKORC1 führen einerseits zu einem erblich bedingten Mangel an Vitamin K-abhängigen Gerinnungsfaktoren vom Typ 2 (VKCFD2) mit starken Blutungen durch eine nicht oder nur unvollständig ablaufende Blutgerinnung. Das VKORC1 ist andererseits auch das Ziel von Medikamenten der Coumaringruppe, der sog. Vitamin K-Antagonisten, die zur Verhinderung einer unzeitigen Gerinnung eingesetzt werden. In höheren Dosen wird diese Substanzklasse als Rattenbekämpfungsmittel eingesetzt. Bei manchen Rattenpopulationen, aber auch bei einigen Patienten, ist die Wirksamkeit der Coumarine durch bestimmte Mutationen im VKORC1-Protein, welche eine Warfarinresistenz hervorrufen, erheblich eingeschränkt. Zu diesem VKORC1 existiert ein paraloges Protein, das Vitamin K-Epoxid-Reduktase Komplex 1-like 1 Protein (VKORC1L1), dessen Funktion bislang unbekannt ist und welches Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit war. Es wurden unterschiedliche Methoden angewandt, um das VKORC1L1-Protein zu charakterisieren und seine mögliche Funktion(en) aufzuklären. Zum einen sollte die Herstellung einer Knockout-Maus dazu dienen, durch den erhaltenen Phänotyp Hinweise auf die mögliche physiologische Aufgabe zu erhalten. Allerdings gelangten die Versuche nur bis zur Generierung der Chimären, so dass dieses Teilprojekt nicht zum Abschluss gebracht werden konnte. Die biochemische Charakterisierung des Proteins zeigte eine Expression des VKORC1L1-Gens in allen untersuchten Geweben, wobei keine starke Expression für ein bestimmtes Gewebe ermittelt werden konnte. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Protein Vitamin K-Epoxid auf gleiche Weise wie das VKORC1 recyceln kann und durch Warfarin gehemmt wird. Einige der in eingeführten VKORC1L1 Mutationen vermitteln darüber hinaus eine Warfarinresistenz. Des Weiteren wurden Enzymkinetiken für die Spezies Maus und Ratte sowie für die Stachelmaus erstellt. Die erhaltenen Werte für die Michaelis-Menten-Konstante und die Maximalgeschwindigkeit sind untereinander sehr ähnlich und sprechen für eine Oxido-Reduktase-Aktivität des VKORC1L1-Proteins. Bioinformatische Analysen konzentrierten sich auf die Aufklärung von konservierten Aminosäureresten im VKORC1L1. Dadurch konnten funktionell wichtige Positionen des Proteins ermittelt werden. Ein evolutiver Stammbaum konnte weiterhin zeigen, dass die paralogen Proteine VKORC1 und VKORC1L1 sehr wahrscheinlich aus einem gemeinsamen Vorläuferprotein bei der Entwicklung der Wirbeltiere aus einer Duplikation entstanden sind und nach der Entstehung der Landwirbeltiere ihre spezifischen Funktionen ausgebildet haben. Ein Homologievergleich zwischen den humanen Chromosomen 7 und 16 und den jeweiligen Chromosomen verschiedener Spezies zeigte, dass sich nach der Duplikation die Gene für das VKORC1 und das VKORC1L1 bei fast allen betrachteten Spezies unabhängig voneinander auf verschiedenen Chromosomen evolutiv entwickelt haben. Dies ist ein weiteres Indiz dafür, dass die Duplikation schon sehr lange zurück liegt.
Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der monoklonale Antikörper IV´D4 biochemisch charakterisiert und die zelluläre Verteilung des Antigens mittels Immunfluoreszenz-Mikroskopie untersucht. Durch elektronenmikroskopische Lokalisierungsexperimente wurde gezeigt, dass es sich dabei um Nuage handelt. Obwohl der Antikörper eine oozytenspezifische Struktur markierte, färbte er in der Immunfluoreszenz überraschenderweise auch somatische Xenopus Kulturzellen (A6 und XTC) an. Als nächstes wurde das Antigen von IV´D4 und damit eine neue Proteinkomponente der Nuage identifiziert. Durch Immunblots von prävitellogenen Oozyten und Expression rekombinanter Proteine wurde festgestellt, dass der Antikörper das Protein 42Sp50 erkennt. Es war nicht auszuschließen, dass die Nuage lediglich die somatischen EF1A-Isoformen akkumulieren. Tatsächlich werden alle drei EF1A-Isoformen in Oozyten exprimiert, wie RT-PCR-Experimente belegten. Die ubiquitäre Expression und hohe Sequenzverwandtschaft der beiden traditionellen Xenopus EF1A-Isoformen mit denen der Säuger veranlassten uns, die Nomenklatur anzugleichen (Xenopus EF1A-1 für EF1A-S und EF1A-2 für EF1A-O). Durch Mikroinjektion entsprechender mRNAs wurden Fluoreszenz-EF1A Fusionsproteine (gekoppelt an EGFP, monomeres DsRed oder monomeres RFP) in lebenden Oozyten exprimiert und lokalisiert. Neben 42Sp50 wurde auch die zweite Proteinkomponente der 42S Partikel, 42Sp43, in Form von fluoreszierenden Fusionsproteinen in Oozyten exprimiert und lokalisiert. In einem weiteren Teil der Arbeit wurde die Dynamik der Nuage untersucht. Dazu wurden Versuche mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren durchgeführt. Es sollte überprüft werden, ob die Hemmung unterschiedlicher zellulärer Prozesse Einfluss auf die strukturelle Organisation der Nuage hat. Zu Beginn der Arbeit lagen keine Kenntnisse darüber vor, in welchem Zellkompartiment das Assembly der 42S RNPs stattfindet. Zunächst wurden deshalb die beiden Proteine 42Sp50 und 42Sp43 als fluoreszierende Fusionsproteine in prävitellogenen Ooyzten koexprimiert. Ein eindeutiger Nachweis der spezifischen Interaktion zwischen 42Sp43 und 42Sp50 gelang insbesondere durch die transiente Expression der entsprechenden fluoreszenzmarkierten Proteinpaare in somatischen Kulturzellen (Xenopus A6 und Säuger COS-7 Zellen). Die hier beschriebene Koexpression von Proteinpaaren mit unterschiedlichen Fluoreszenzfarbstoffen in Säugerzellen stellt eine einfache Methode dar, um in vivo Interaktionen mikroskopisch sichtbar zu machen. Damit sollte es möglich sein, durch gezielte Mutationen und Deletionen von 42Sp50 und 42Sp43 diejenigen Aminosäuren und strukturellen Determinanten zu identifzieren, die bei der spezifischen Interaktion und damit beim Assembly der 42S Partikel eine Rolle spielen.
Gene and genome duplications are major mechanisms of eukaryotic genome evolution. Three rounds of genome duplication have occurred in the vertebrate lineage, two rounds (1R, 2R) during early vertebrate evolution and a third round, the fish-specific genome duplication (FSGD), in ray-finned fishes at the base of the teleost lineage. Whole genome duplications (WGDs) are considered to facilitate speciation processes and to provide the genetic raw material for major evolutionary transitions and increases in morphological complexity. In the present study, I have used comparative genomic approaches combining molecular phylogenetic reconstructions, synteny analyses as well as gene function studies (expression analyses and knockdown experiments) to investigate the evolutionary consequences and significance of the three vertebrate WGDs. First, the evolutionary history of the endothelin signaling system consisting of endothelin ligands and receptors was reconstructed. The endothelin system is a key component for the development of a major vertebrate innovation, the neural crest. This analysis shows that the endothelin system emerged in an ancestor of the vertebrate lineage and that its members in extant vertebrate genomes are derived from the vertebrate WGDs. Each round of WGD was followed by co-evolution of the expanding endothelin ligand and receptor repertoires. This supports the importance of genome duplications for the origin and diversification of the neural crest, but also underlines a major role for the co-option of new genes into the neural crest regulatory network. Next, I have studied the impact of the FSGD on the evolution of teleost pigment cell development and differentiation. The investigation of 128 genes showed that pigmentation genes have been preferentially retained in duplicate after the FSGD so that extant teleost genomes contain around 30% more putative pigmentation genes than tetrapods. Large parts of pigment cell regulatory pathways are present in duplicate being potentially involved in teleost pigmentary innovations. There are also important differences in the retention of duplicated pigmentation genes among divergent teleost lineages. Functional studies of pigment synthesis enzymes in zebrafish and medaka, particularly of the tyrosinase family, revealed lineage-specific functional evolution of duplicated pigmentation genes in teleosts, but also pointed to anciently conserved gene functions in vertebrates. These results suggest that the FSGD has facilitated the evolution of the teleost pigmentary system, which is the most complex and diverse among vertebrates. In conclusion, the present study supports a major role of WGDs for phenotypic evolution and biodiversity in vertebrates, particularly in fish.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden Antikörper-bindende Epitope von humaner Proteinase 3 (hPR3), dem Autoantigen der Wegenerschen Granulomatose (WG), charakterisiert. WG ist eine Autoimmunerkrankung, die durch chronische Entzündung des oberen und unteren respiratorischen Trakts, Vaskulitis und Glomerulonephritis gekennzeichnet ist. WG ist mit Anti-Neutrophilen zytoplasmatischen- Antikörpern (ANCA) assoziiert, die spezifisch gegen konformationelle Epitope auf der Oberfläche der Serinprotease hPR3 aus azurophilen Granula neutrophiler Granulozyten gerichtet sind. Die Charakterisierung von ANCA-bindenden Epitopen ist für ein besseres Krankheitsverständis Unverzichtbar. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde nach einem geeigneten PR3-Homolog gesucht, welches sich durch den gezielten Austausch von Oberflächen- Loops für die Kartierung von ANCA-Epitopen eignet. Zunächst wurde die PR3 Aminosäuresequenz der Primaten Pan troglodytes versus (Schimpanse), Macacca mulatta (Makakke) und Hylobates pileatus (Gibbon) analysiert und die Reaktivität gegenüber ANCA mit dem humanen Homolog verglichen. Sowohl Aminosäuresequenz als auch ANCA-Kreuzreaktivität korrelierten mit der phylogenetischen Distanz zu hPR3. Aufgrund der Bindungseigenschaften von Gibbon-PR3 (gibPR3) wurde dieses Homolog für Epitopstudien herangezogen, da die Aminosäuresequenz nur geringfügig von hPR3 abweicht und die Bindung von monoklonalen Anti-hPR3-Antikörpern und WG-Patientenseren im Immunoblot ein deutlich abgeschwächtes Signal lieferte oder keine Reaktivität mehr aufwies. Für die Epitop-Charakterisierung wurden drei hPR3/gibPR3-Mutanten generiert. Die rekombinante Expression von proPR3 erfolgte in Flp-in HEK 293 Zellen und wurde von dort aus dem Zellkultur-Überstand gereinigt und mittels Enterokinase konvertiert. Um das Epitopspektrum genau zu analysieren, wurde ein ELISA entwickelt, bei dem PR3 über den C-terminal gelegenen His6-Tag an Nickel-beschichtete Mikrotiterplatten gebunden wurde. Für den monoklonalen Anti-hPR3-Antikörper MCPR3-2 konnte die Region auf die Aminosäuren Arg60, Gln63A und Leu90 (Chymotrypsinogen-Nummerierung), das für 12.8 auf Met35, Asn38A, Pro38B und Arg74 der N-terminalen PR3-Domäne eingegrenzt werden. Letztere wurde von der Mehrheit der getesteten ANCA der WG-Patienten erkannt und zeigt somit, dass es sich hierbei um ein krankheitsrelevantes Epitop handelt. Diese Region schließt dabei auch den Bindungsbereich von α1-PI ein. Im weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Bindung des Antikörpers bei gleichzeitiger Anwesenheit von α1-PI stark von dessen Konzentration abhängig ist. Bereits bei einer α1-PI-Konzentration von 1 mg/ml, konnte eine partielle Antikörperbindung beobachtet werden. Sinkt die Konzentration deutlich, so besitzen Anti-hPR3-Antikörper die Möglichkeit an diese zu binden. Somit konkurrieren Antikörper und Inhibitor um die PR3-Bindungsstellen. Ein ausgewogenes Protease-Inhibitor-Gleichgewicht ist allerdings für eine kontrollierte Protease-Aktivität notwendig. Ist dieses gestört, so kann es zur Bindung von ANCA an hPR3 auf der Membran von Neutrophilen und deren Aktivierung kommen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass vermehrt proteolytische Enzyme freigesetzt werden, welche durch unkontrollierte enzymatische Aktivität Entzündungsreaktionen und Gewebeschädigung hervorrufen. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit der Charakterisierung einer autosomal-dominant vererbten myofibrillären Myopathie (MFM) in Kombination mit familiärer arrhythmogener rechtsventrikulärer Kardiomyopathie 7 (ARVD7) einer schwedischen Familie. Durch genomweite Kartierung mittels SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism)-Typisierung (Affymetrix Human Mapping 10K Array) wurde der Locus auf 10q22.3 bestätigt. Die Region wurde anschließend bis auf 4.1 Mbp zwischen den Markern D10S1645 und D10S1786 eingegrenzt. In diesem Intervall befinden sich 18 Kandidatengene. Nachdem die Protein-kodierenden Exons aller Gene im Krankheitsintervall sequenziert und dennoch keine signifikanten Abweichungen zwischen Patient und der Normalpopulation aufgefallen waren, wurde gezielt nach einer intragenische Deletion gesucht. Hierzu wurde von einem der Patienten zwei Maus-Hybridlinien generiert, die jeweils nur eines der beiden 10-er Homologe des Patienten enthalten. Doch auch hier waren die kodierenden Exons der 18 Gene aus beiden Hybridlinien durch PCR mit gleicher Effizienz und Größe amplifizierbar, so dass eine intragenische Deletionen mit großer Sicherheit bei allen Genen ausgeschlossen werden konnte. Des weiteren wurde nach SNPs in der transkribierten Sequenz der Kandidatengene gesucht, und die Expression beider Allele für 10 von 18 Kandidatengenen in Muskel-cDNA nachgewiesen. Kleine Veränderungen in nicht-kodierenden Bereichen, Introns, Promotor-Regionen, genomische Veränderungen oder de novo Insertionen sind mögliche pathogene Mechanismen, die im weiteren untersucht werden müssen.
In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Techniken zur Analyse der Funktion diverser Neuronen in Drosophila melanogaster angewendet. Im ersten Teil wurde mittels in-vivo Calcium Imaging Technik unter Verwendung des Calciumsensors Cameleon neuronale Aktivität entlang des olfaktorischen Signalweges registriert. Hierbei wurde die neuronale Repräsentation der Duftidentität und der Duftintensität untersucht. In Bezug auf diese Fragestellung wurde die Datenverarbeitung und Datenanalyse weiterentwickelt und standardisiert. Die Experimente führten zu dem Ergebnis, dass duftspezifische Aktivitätsmuster auf der Ebene des Antennallobus sehr gut unterscheidbar sind. Manche Aktivitätsmuster der präsentierten Düfte zeigten interessanterweise einen hohen Ähnlichkeitsgrad, wohingegen andere unähnlich waren. In höheren Gehirnzentren wie den Orten der terminalen Aborisationen der Projektionsneurone oder den Pilzkörper Kenyonzellen liegt eine starke Variabilität der duftevozierten Aktivitätsmuster vor, was generelle Interpretationen unmöglich macht und höchstens Vergleiche innerhalb eines Individuums zulässt. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Calciumsignale in den Rezeptorneuronen sowie prä- und postsynaptisch in den Projektionsneuronen bei Erhöhung der Konzentration der verschiedenen präsentierten Düfte über einen Bereich von mindestens drei Größenordnungen ansteigen. In den Kenyonzellen des Pilzkörper-Calyx und der Pilzkörper-Loben ist diese Konzentrationsabhängigkeit weniger deutlich ausgeprägt und im Falle der Loben nur für bestimmte Düfte detektierbar. Eine Bestätigung des postulierten „sparsed code“ der Duftpräsentation in den Pilzkörpern konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht erbracht werden, was möglicherweise daran liegt, dass eine Einzelzellauflösung mit der verwendeten Technik nicht erreicht werden kann. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit sollte durch die Nutzung des lichtabhängigen Kationenkanals Channelrhodopsin-2 der Frage nachgegangen werden, ob bestimmte modulatorische Neurone die verstärkenden Eigenschaften eines bestrafenden oder belohnenden Stimulus vermitteln. Die lichtinduzierte Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 exprimierenden dopaminergen Neuronen als Ersatz für einen aversiven Reiz führte bei einer olfaktorischen Konditionierung bei Larven zur Bildung eines aversiven assoziativen Gedächtnisses. Im Gegensatz dazu induzierte die Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 in oktopaminergen/tyraminergen Neuronen als Ersatz für einen appetitiven Reiz ein appetitives assoziatives Gedächtnis. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass dopaminerge Neurone bei Larven aversives Duftlernen, oktopaminerge/tyraminerge Neurone dagegen appetitives Duftlernen induzieren.
Die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz ist ein Indikator für eine mögliche Abhängigkeit von Alkohol. Der genaue molekulare Mechanismus der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung ist jedoch nicht bekannt. Drosophila ermöglicht die molekulare und phänotypische Untersuchung von verschiedenen Mutanten mit veränderter Toleranz und kann so zu einem besseren Verständnis beitragen. Die hangAE10 Mutante entwickelt eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz, wobei dieser Phänotyp auf Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort zurückzuführen ist. Für ein besseres Verständnis, in welchen molekularen Mechanismen bzw. Signalwegen HANG wirkt, wurde die Funktion des Proteins auf zellulärer Ebene analysiert und mögliche Zielgene charakterisiert. Die auffällige Proteinstruktur von HANG spricht für eine Interaktion mit Nukleinsäuren. Immunhistochemische Analysen von ektopisch exprimiertem Hangover Protein ergaben, dass dieses nicht mit der DNA co-lokalisiert und auch nicht an polytänen Chromosomen nachgewiesen werden kann. Die ektopische Expression von HANG in Speicheldrüsenzellen zeigte eine punktförmige Verteilung des Proteins innerhalb des Zellkerns. Dieses punktförmige Expressionsmuster wird häufig in RNA-bindenden Proteinen gefunden. Deshalb wurden Co-Lokalisationsstudien von HANG mit Markern für RNAmodifizierende Proteine durchgeführt. Dabei wurde keine Interaktion mit verschiedenen Markerproteinen des Spleißapparates gefunden. Mithilfe von in vitro Experimenten konnte aber die Bindung von RNA an bestimmten Hangover Proteinbereichen nachgewiesen werden Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass HANG eine RNA-regulierende Funktion hat. In einem cDNA Microarray Experiment wurde das Gen dunce als mögliches Zielgen von Hangover identifiziert. Das Gen dunce kodiert für eine Phosphodiesterase, welche spezifisch cAMP hydrolysiert. Zur Bestätigung der cDNA Microarray Experimente wurden die dnc Transkriptunterschiede in Wildtyp und hangAE10 Mutante mithilfe von semiquantitativer RT-PCR für jede der vier Gruppen untersucht. Dabei konnte eine Reduktion der dncRMRA-Transkriptgruppe in hangAE10 Mutanten nachgewiesen werden. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse wurde die dncRMRA -spezifische dncΔ143 Mutante hergestellt und auf Verhaltensebene analysiert. Die Experimente zeigten, dass sowohl dnc1, als auch die dncΔ143 Mutante eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz und Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort aufweisen. Für die Rettung der reduzierten Toleranz von hangAE10 und dncΔ143 in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde die dncRMRA Promotor- GAL4 Linie hergestellt. Die reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz der dncΔ143 Mutanten konnte über die Expression von UAS-dnc mit der dncRMRA-GAL4 Linie auf Wildtyp Level gerettet werden. Die reduzierte Toleranz der hangAE10 Mutante konnte mithilfe derselben GAL4 Linie verbessert werden. Dies beweist, dass in beiden Mutanten dieselben Zellen für die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz benötigt werden und sie wahrscheinlich in der gleichen Signaltransduktionskaskade eine Funktion haben. Aufgrund der Anfälligkeit der UAS/ GAL4 Systems gegenüber Hitze war es außerdem nicht möglich die Defekte der zellulären Stressantwort von dncΔ143 bzw. hangAE10 Fliegen zu retten. Die Rettung der reduzierten Ethanoltoleranz der dcnΔ143 Mutante führte außerdem zu der Vermutung, dass die cAMP Regulation eine wichtige Funktion bei der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung hat. Über die Expression von cAMP-regulierenden Proteinen in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde der Einfluss von cAMP bei Ethanol-induziertem Verhalten überprüft. Bei der Überexpression von dunce und rutabaga konnte weder eine Veränderung für die Ethanolsensitivität, noch für die Toleranzentwicklung festgestellt werden. Eine Erklärung hierfür wäre, dass Veränderungen in der cAMP Konzentration über Rückkopplungsmechanismen zwischen Dunce und Rutabaga ausgeglichen werden können. Für eine genauere Aussage müsste jedoch die cAMP Konzentration in diesen Fliegen gemessen werden. Die Überexpression von pka- in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen führt zu einer erhöhten Ethanolresistenz. Das bedeutet, dass die Modulation der cAMP Konzentration durch dunce und rutabaga in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen keinen Einfluss auf Ethanol-induziertes Verhalten hat, wohingegen die Stärke der cAMP vermittelten Signalverarbeitung über die cAMP-abhängige PKA zu Veränderungen im Verhalten führt. Für Mutanten des cAMP Signalweges ist außerdem bekannt, dass sie Defekte im olfaktorischen Lernen bzw. Gedächtnis aufweisen. Deshalb wurden die dncΔ143, dnc1 und hangAE10 Mutanten in diesem Paradigma getestet. Sowohl dnc1, als auch dncΔ143 Fliegen zeigten einen reduzierten Performance Index für das zwei und 30 Minuten Gedächtnis. Nach 180 Minuten verhielten sich die dncΔ143 Mutanten nicht mehr unterschiedlich zum Wildtyp, die dnc1 Mutante zeigte jedoch immer noch eine Reduktion des Performance Index im Vergleich zur Kontrolle. Demnach ist in dncΔ143 Mutanten nur das Kurzzeitgedächtnis betroffen, wohingegen hangAE10 Mutanten keine Reduktion des Performance Index für das olfaktorische Kurzzeitgedächtnis aufweisen. Die unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse der beiden Mutanten in der Gedächtnisentwicklung deuten außerdem daraufhin, dass Lernen und Gedächtnis in dncΔ143 und hangAE10 Mutanten von der Toleranzentwicklung unabhängig über unterschiedliche cAMP-abhängige Signaltransduktionskaskaden reguliert werden.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Charakterisierung der molekularen Grundlagen der Proepikardentwicklung im Huhn. Das Proepikard (PE) stellt die Vorläuferpopulation des Koronargefäßsystems dar. Es wurden zwei Schwerpunkte bearbeitet, zum einen die Rolle von einem Mitglied der TGFß-Superfamilie (BMP, bone morphogenetic protein) während der Induktionsphase des PE und zweitens die molekularen Mechanismen, welche der links/rechts Asymmetrie der PE Entwicklung zugrunde liegen. Die Expressionsmuster von TBX18, WT1, CFC weisen diese als proepikardiale Marker aus. BMP4 wird ebenfalls im PE exprimiert, wenngleich wesentlich schwächer als BMP2 im benachbarten Sinusmyokard. Durch in vitro Experimente mit proepikardialen Primärkulturen wurde festgestellt, dass die Zugabe von rekombinatem BMP2 einen Teil der Zellen zu Kardiomyozyten differenzieren lässt. Daher wird angenommen, dass ein Teil der proepikardialen Zellen konzentrationsabhängig auf Wachstumsfaktoren reagieren und in der Lage sind, die epikardiale Linie zu verlassen und ein myokardiales Schicksal anzunehmen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die Rolle des NODAL-PITX2-Signalweges in Bezug auf die Unilateralität des Proepikards im Hühnchen analysiert. Dazu wurden Manipulationen des Hensenschen Knotens im HH Stadium 4 durchgeführt, mit dem Ziel linksseitige Markergene auf der rechten Seite ektopisch zu induzieren. Keine dieser Manipulationen, als auch eine virale Überexpression von PITX2 in sinuatrialen Progenitoren in vivo, liess eine Veränderung der TBX18-Lateralität erkennen, obwohl die PITX2-Expression randomisiert war. Dagegen führte die Inhibition des asymmetrischen Ionenfluxes sowie der Apoptose im Primitivstreifen zu einer völligen Randomisierung der TBX18-Expression, sowie unter anderem der Entwicklung bilateraler Proepikardien. Die Induktion bilateraler TBX18-Expressionsdomänen war ebenfalls durch ektopisches FGF8 auf der linken Seite des Knotens zu beobachten. Der Verlust der rechtsseitigen FGF Signalgebung im Knoten resultierte in einem Verlust der rechtsseitigen TBX18-Expression im Sinus. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, dass proepikardiale Progenitoren nicht nur durch den asymmetrischen Ionenflux sowie Apoptose im Primitivstreifen in ihrer Lateralität festgelegt werden, sondern auch von rechtsseitigen FGF-Signalen im Knoten und unabhängig vom linkseitigen NODAL-PITX2-Signalweg lateralisiert werden.
Die Untersuchung des Flächenanspruchs von Tierpopulationen ist wegen folgender Gesichtspunkte wichtig: (a) Nachdem das Aussterben der Arten nicht nachläßt, erhebt sich die Frage nach den Möglichkeiten im Naturschutz, quantitative Forderungen zu begründen. (b) Da selbst gezielte Schutzmaßnahmen sinnlos werden, wenn die Voraussetzungen für das überleben der Arten oder Lebensgemeinschaften nicht gegeben sind, muß man sich fragen, wieviel an Umweltverschmutzung reduziert werden muß, damit der Artenschutz verwirklicht werden kann. Der "Extensivierungsspielraum" an sich reicht nicht aus. Die Frage nach dem Flächenanspruch schließt den Gedanken einer "mindestens notwendigen" Flächensicherung ein. Der Flächenbedarf einer Tierpopulation wird bestimmt durch (A) den Raumbedarf der Reproduktionseinheit, und (B) der Größe einer überlebensfähigen Population. (A) variiert durch die individuell und im Jahresverlauf schwankenden Aktionsraumgrößen und die unterschiedliche Habitatqualität. Die überlebensfähigkeit (B) einer Population ist von Zufallsprozessen abhängig und daher nur mit einer gewissen Wahrscheinlichkeit abschätzbar. Vier verschiedene (nicht anthropogene) Faktoren können selbst in einem geeigneten Habi tat zum Aussterben von Populationen führen: (a) demographische und (b) genetische Zufallsprozesse, (c) Umweltschwankungen und (d) (Natur) katastrophen. Eine Absicherung gegen diese Risikofaktoren wird durch Vergrößerung der Population, Erhöhung der Zahl geeigneter Habitate und Verringerung der Isolierung zwischen den bewohnten Flächen erreicht. Eine Mindestforderung (Minimalareal die mindest notwendige Fläche, die geschützt werden muß) kann nur an der sog. "minimum viable population" bemessen werden. Die Gefährdungsgradanalyse ("population vulnerability analysis") für eine bestimmte Tierart liefert die notwendigen Angaben zur Habitatqualität, Flächengröße und Lage der Flächen, die für die Zukunftssicherung einer Population unter natürlichen Bedingungen (z.B. "mit 95%iger Wahrscheinlichkeit die nächsten 50 Jahre überlebensfähig" ) notwendig sind. Sowohl beim konstruktiven Artenschutz wie auch für die Schadensbegrenzung bei Eingriffsregelungen sollte eine Zielart ausgewählt werden, damit die Flächensicherung eindeutig quantitativ begründet werden kann. Die Auswahl einer Zielart erfolgt nach Kriterien wie überregionaler Gefährdungsgrad, Schlüsselart, Chancen der Populationssicherung und wird regional nach den bestehenden Voraussetzungen (Vorkommen, Habitatangebot, Regionalplan) angepaßt. Die wesentlichen Aspekte eines ZielartenKonzeptes sind: Der Flächenbedarf für Schutz- und Ausgleichsmaßnahmen wird an den Überlebensaussichten einzelner Tierpopulationen bemessen -- Die Zukunftssicherung muß natürliche Bedingungen (nicht ständige Stützmaßnahmen) voraussetzen -- Die Analyse von Risikofaktoren bildet die Grundlage für die Abschätzung der Zukunftsaussichten. Es sind wissenschaftlich begründete, quantitative Aussagen möglich. Durch die Sicherung von Flächen mit geeigneter Habitatqualität profitieren viele weitere Arten von den Schutzmaßnahmen. Es entsteht ein künftiger Forschungsbedarf vor allem zu den Gefährdungsgradanalysen ausgewählter Zielarten. Für die praktische Umsetzung sind die Aufstellung einer regional angepaßten Zielartenliste, Habitateignungsanalysen und die Entwicklung von Populationsmodellen für Zielarten von seiten der biologischen Wissenschaft nötig.