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Using Expansion Microscopy to Visualize and Characterize the Morphology of Mitochondrial Cristae
(2020)
Mitochondria are double membrane bound organelles indispensable for biological processes such as apoptosis, cell signaling, and the production of many important metabolites, which includes ATP that is generated during the process known as oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). The inner membrane contains folds called cristae, which increase the membrane surface and thus the amount of membrane-bound proteins necessary for the OXPHOS. These folds have been of great interest not only because of their importance for energy conversion, but also because changes in morphology have been linked to a broad range of diseases from cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, to aging and infection. With a distance between opposing cristae membranes often below 100 nm, conventional fluorescence imaging cannot provide a resolution sufficient for resolving these structures. For this reason, various highly specialized super-resolution methods including dSTORM, PALM, STED, and SIM have been applied for cristae visualization. Expansion Microscopy (ExM) offers the possibility to perform super-resolution microscopy on conventional confocal microscopes by embedding the sample into a swellable hydrogel that is isotropically expanded by a factor of 4–4.5, improving the resolution to 60–70 nm on conventional confocal microscopes, which can be further increased to ∼ 30 nm laterally using SIM. Here, we demonstrate that the expression of the mitochondrial creatine kinase MtCK linked to marker protein GFP (MtCK-GFP), which localizes to the space between the outer and the inner mitochondrial membrane, can be used as a cristae marker. Applying ExM on mitochondria labeled with this construct enables visualization of morphological changes of cristae and localization studies of mitochondrial proteins relative to cristae without the need for specialized setups. For the first time we present the combination of specific mitochondrial intermembrane space labeling and ExM as a tool for studying internal structure of mitochondria.
Oncogenic transformation of lung epithelial cells is a multistep process, frequently starting with the inactivation of tumour suppressors and subsequent development of activating mutations in proto-oncogenes, such as members of the PI3K or MAPK families. Cells undergoing transformation have to adjust to changes, including altered metabolic requirements. This is achieved, in part, by modulating the protein abundance of transcription factors. Here, we report that the ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 28 (USP28) enables oncogenic reprogramming by regulating the protein abundance of proto-oncogenes such as c-JUN, c-MYC, NOTCH and ∆NP63 at early stages of malignant transformation. USP28 levels are increased in cancer compared with in normal cells due to a feed-forward loop, driven by increased amounts of oncogenic transcription factors such as c-MYC and c-JUN. Irrespective of oncogenic driver, interference with USP28 abundance or activity suppresses growth and survival of transformed lung cells. Furthermore, inhibition of USP28 via a small-molecule inhibitor resets the proteome of transformed cells towards a ‘premalignant’ state, and its inhibition synergizes with clinically established compounds used to target EGFR\(^{L858R}\)-, BRAF\(^{V600E}\)- or PI3K\(^{H1047R}\)-driven tumour cells. Targeting USP28 protein abundance at an early stage via inhibition of its activity is therefore a feasible strategy for the treatment of early-stage lung tumours, and the observed synergism with current standard-of-care inhibitors holds the potential for improved targeting of established tumours.
∆Np63 is a master regulator of squamous cell identity and regulates several signaling pathways that crucially
contribute to the development of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) tumors. Its contribution to coordinating the
expression of genes involved in oncogenesis, epithelial identity, DNA repair, and genome stability has been
extensively studied and characterized. For SCC, the expression of ∆Np63 is an essential requirement to
maintain the malignant phenotype. Additionally, ∆Np63 functionally contributes to the development of cancer
resistance toward therapies inducing DNA damage.
SCC patients are currently treated with the same conventional Cisplatin therapy as they would have been
treated 30 years ago. In contrast to patients with other tumor entities, the survival of SCC patients is limited,
and the efficacy of the current therapies is rather low. Considering the rising incidences of these tumor entities,
the development of novel SCC therapies is urgently required. Targeting ∆Np63, the transcription factor, is a
potential alternative to improve the therapeutic response and clinical outcomes of SCC patients.
However, ∆Np63 is considered “undruggable.” As is commonly observed in transcription factors, ∆Np63 does
not provide any suitable domains for the binding of small molecule inhibitors. ∆Np63 regulates a plethora of
different pathways and cellular processes, making it difficult to counteract its function by targeting
downstream effectors. As ∆Np63 is strongly regulated by the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS), the
development of deubiquitinating enzyme inhibitors has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy to target
∆Np63 in SCC treatment.
This work involved identifying the first deubiquitinating enzyme that regulates ∆Np63 protein stability. Stateof-the-art SCC models were used to prove that USP28 deubiquitinates ∆Np63, regulates its protein stability,
and affects squamous transcriptional profiles in vivo and ex vivo. Accordingly, SCC depends on USP28 to
maintain essential levels of ∆Np63 protein abundance in tumor formation and maintenance. For the first time,
∆Np63, the transcription factor, was targeted in vivo using a small molecule inhibitor targeting the activity of
USP28. The pharmacological inhibition of USP28 was sufficient to hinder the growth of SCC tumors in
preclinical mouse models.
Finally, this work demonstrated that the combination of Cisplatin with USP28 inhibitors as a novel therapeutic
alternative could expand the limited available portfolio of SCC therapeutics. Collectively, the data presented
within this dissertation demonstrates that the inhibition of USP28 in SCC decreases ∆Np63 protein abundance,
thus downregulating the Fanconi anemia (FA) pathway and recombinational DNA repair. Accordingly, USP28
inhibition reduces the DNA damage response, thereby sensitizing SCC tumors to DNA damage therapies, such
as Cisplatin.
Squamous cell carcinomas are therapeutically challenging tumor entities. Low response rates to radiotherapy and chemotherapy are commonly observed in squamous patients and, accordingly, the mortality rate is relatively high compared to other tumor entities. Recently, targeting USP28 has been emerged as a potential alternative to improve the therapeutic response and clinical outcomes of squamous patients. USP28 is a catalytically active deubiquitinase that governs a plethora of biological processes, including cellular proliferation, DNA damage repair, apoptosis and oncogenesis. In squamous cell carcinoma, USP28 is strongly expressed and stabilizes the essential squamous transcription factor ΔNp63, together with important oncogenic factors, such as NOTCH1, c-MYC and c-JUN. It is presumed that USP28 is an oncoprotein; however, recent data suggest that the deubiquitinase also has an antineoplastic effect regulating important tumor suppressor proteins, such as p53 and CHK2. In this review, we discuss: (1) The emerging role of USP28 in cancer. (2) The complexity and mutational landscape of squamous tumors. (3) The genetic alterations and cellular pathways that determine the function of USP28 in squamous cancer. (4) The development and current state of novel USP28 inhibitors.
Multiple myeloma (MM) represents a haematological cancer characterized by the pathological hyper proliferation of antibody-producing B-lymphocytes. Patients typically suffer from kidney malfunction and skeletal disorders. In the context of MM, the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) member Activin A was recently identified as a promoter of both accompanying symptoms. Because studies have shown that bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2-mediated activities are counteracted by Activin A, we analysed whether BMP2, which also binds to the Activin A receptors ActRII and ActRIIB but activates the alternative SMAD-1/5/8 pathway, can be used to antagonize Activin A activities, such as in the context of MM. Therefore three BMP2 derivatives were generated with modified binding activities for the type II (ActRIIB) and/or type I receptor (BMPRIA) showing either increased or decreased BMP2 activity. In the context of MM these BMP2 muteins show two functionalities since they act as a) an anti-proliferative/apoptotic agent against neoplastic B-cells, b) as a bone-formation promoting growth factor. The molecular basis of both activities was shown in two different cellular models to clearly rely on the properties of the investigated BMP2 muteins to compete for the binding of Activin A to the Activin type II receptors. The experimental outcome suggests new therapeutic strategies using BMP2 variants in the treatment of MM-related pathologies.
Virotherapy on the basis of oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV) strains is a promising approach for cancer therapy. Recently, we showed that the oncolytic vaccinia virus GLV-1h68 has a therapeutic potential in treating human prostate and hepatocellular carcinomas in xenografted mice. In this study, we describe the use of dynamic boolean modeling for tumor growth prediction of vaccinia virus-injected human tumors. Antigen profiling data of vaccinia virus GLV-1h68-injected human xenografted mice were obtained, analyzed and used to calculate differences in the tumor growth signaling network by tumor type and gender. Our model combines networks for apoptosis, MAPK, p53, WNT, Hedgehog, the T-killer cell mediated cell death, Interferon and Interleukin signaling networks. The in silico findings conform very well with in vivo findings of tumor growth. Similar to a previously published analysis of vaccinia virus-injected canine tumors, we were able to confirm the suitability of our boolean modeling for prediction of human tumor growth after virus infection in the current study as well. In summary, these findings indicate that our boolean models could be a useful tool for testing of the efficacy of VACV-mediated cancer therapy already before its use in human patients.
Cancer-related anemia is prevalent in cancer patients. Anemia negatively affects normal mental and physical function capacity with common symptoms s like fatigue, headache, or depression. Human erythropoietin (hEPO), a glycoprotein hormone regulating red blood cell formation, is approved for the treatment of cancer-related anemia. It has shown benefits in correcting anemia, and subsequently improving health-related quality of life and/or enhancing radio-, and chemotherapy. Several recent clinical trials have suggested that recombinant hEPO (rhEPO) may promote tumor growth that raises the questions concerning the safety of using rhEPO for cancer treatment. However in others, such effects were not indicated. As of today, the direct functional effect of rhEPO in tumor models remains controversial and needs to be further analyzed. Based on the GLV-1h68 backbone, the hEPO-expressing recombinant VACV strains (EPO-VACVs) GLV-1h210, GLV-1h211, GLV-1h212 and GLV-1h213 were generated by replacing the lacZ expression cassette at the J2R locus with hEPO under the control of different vaccinia promoters p7.5, pSE, pSEL, pSL, respectively. Also, GLV-1h209 was generated, which is similar to GLV-1h210 but expresses a mutated non-functinal EPO (R103A). The EPO-VACV strains were characterized for their oncolytic efficacy in lung (A549) cancer cells in culture and tumor xenografts. Concomitantly, the effects of locally expressed hEPO in tumors on virus replication, host immune infiltration, tumor vascularization and tumor growth were also evaluated. As expected, EPO-VACVs enhanced red blood cell (RBC) formation in xenograft model. The number of RBCs and hemoglobin (Hb) levels were significantly increased in EPO-VACVs-treated mice compared to GLV-1h68-treated or untreated control mice. However, the mean size of RBC or Hb content per RBC remained normal. Furthermore, over-expression of hEPO did not significantly affect numbers of lymphocytes, monocytes, leucocytes or platelets in the peripheral blood stream. The expression of hEPO in colonized tumors of mice treated with EPO-VACVs was demonstrated by immunohistological staining. Interestingly, there were 9 - 10 hEPO isoforms detected either in tumors, cells, or supernatant, while 3-4 basic isoforms were missing in blood serum, where only six hEPO isoforms were found. Tumor-bearing mice after treatment with EPO-VACVs showed enhanced tumor regression compared to GLV-1h68. The virus titers in tumors in EPO-VACVs-treated mice were 3-4 fold higher compared to GLV-1h68-treated mice. Nevertheless, no significant difference in virus titers among EPO-VACVs was found. The blood vessels in tumors were significantly enlarged while the blood vessel density remained unchanged compared to the GLV-1h68 treated mice, indicating that hEPO did not affect endothelial cell proliferation in this model. Meanwhile, rhEPO (Epoetin alfa) alone or in combination with GLV-1h68 did not show any signs of enhanced tumor growth when compared to untreated controls and GLV-1h68 groups, while doses used were clinical relevant (500 U/kg). These findings suggested that hEPO did not promote angiogenesis or tumor growth in the A549 tumor xenograft model. Human EPO has been reported to function as an immune modulator. In this study, however, we did not find any involvement of hEPO in immune cytokine and chemokine expression or innate immune cell infiltration (leucocytes, B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells) into infected tumors. The degree of immune infiltration and cytokine expression was directly correlated to the number of virus particles. Increased virus replication, led to more recruited immune cells and secreted cytokines/chemokines. It was proposed that tumor regression was at least partially mediated through activation of innate immune mechanisms. In conclusion, the novel EPO-VACVs were shown to significantly increase the number of RBCs, Hb levels, and virus replication in tumors as well as to enhance tumor regression in the A549 tumor xenograft model. Moreover, locally expressed hEPO did not promote tumor angiogenesis, tumor growth, and immune infiltration but was shown to causing enlarged tumoral microvessels which facilitated virus spreading. It is conceivable that in a possible clinical application, anemic cancer patients could benefit from the EPO-VACVs, where they could serve as “wellness pills” to decrease anemic symptoms, while simultaneously destroying tumors.
Oncolytic virotherapy represents a promising approach to revolutionize cancer therapy. Several preclinical and clinical trials display the safety of oncolytic viruses as wells as their efficiency against solid tumors. The development of complementary diagnosis and monitoring concepts as well as the optimization of anti-tumor activity are key points of current virotherapy research. Within the framework of this thesis, the diagnostic and therapeutic prospects of beta-glucuronidase expressed by the oncolytic vaccinia virus strain GLV-1h68 were evaluated. In this regard, a beta-glucuronidase-based, therapy-accompanying biomarker test was established which is currently under clinical validation. By using fluorescent substrates, the activity of virally expressed beta-glucuronidase could be detected and quantified. Thereby conclusions about the replication kinetics of oncolytic viruses in animal models and virus-induced cancer cell lysis could be drawn. These findings finally led to the elaboration and establishment of a versatile biomarker assay which allows statements regarding the replication of oncolytic viruses in mice based on serum samples. Besides the analysis of retrospective conditions, this test is able to serve as therapy-accompanying monitoring tool for virotherapy approaches with beta-glucuronidase-expressing viruses. The newly developed assay also served as complement to routinely used plaque assays as well as reference for virally expressed anti-angiogenic antibodies in additional preclinical studies. Further validation of this biomarker test is currently taking place in the context of clinical trials with GL-ONC1 (clinical grade GLV-1h68) and has already shown promising preliminary results. It was furthermore demonstrated that fluorogenic substrates in combination with beta-glucuronidase expressed by oncolytic viruses facilitated the optical detection of solid tumors in preclinical models. In addition to diagnostic purposes, virus-encoded enzymes could also be combined with prodrugs resulting in an improved therapeutic outcome of oncolytic virotherapy. In further studies, the visualization of virus-induced immune reactions as well as the establishment of innovative concepts to improve the therapeutic outcome of oncolytic virotherapy could be accomplished. In conclusion, the results of this thesis provide crucial findings about the influence of virally expressed beta-glucuronidase on various diagnostic concepts in the context of oncolytic virotherapy. In addition, innovative monitoring and therapeutic strategies could be established. Our preclinical findings have important clinical influence, particularly by the development of a therapy-associated biomarker assay which is currently used in different clinical trials.
Vaccinia virus plays an important role in human medicine and molecular biology ever since the 18th century after E. Jenner discovered its value as a vaccination virus against smallpox. After the successful eradication of smallpox, vaccinia virus, apart from its use as a vaccine carrier, is today mainly used as a viral vector in molecular biology and increasingly in cancer therapy. The capability to specifically target and destroy cancer cells makes it a perfect agent for oncolytic virotherapy. Furthermore, the virus can easily be modified by inserting genes encoding therapeutic or diagnostic proteins to be expressed within the tumor. The emphasis in this study was the diagnosis of tumors using different vaccinia virus strains. Viruses with metal-accumulating capabilities for tumor detection via MRI technology were generated and tested for their usefulness in cell culture and in vivo. The virus strains GLV-1h131, GLV-1h132, and GLV-1h133 carry the gene encoding the two subunits of the iron storage protein ferritin under the control of three different promoters. GLV-1h110, GLV-1h111, and GLV-1h112 encode the bacterial iron storage protein bacterioferritin, whereas GLV-1h113 encodes the codon-optimized version of bacterioferritin for more efficient expression in human cells. GLV-1h22 contains the transferrin receptor gene, which plays an important role in iron uptake, and GLV-1h114 and GLV-1h115 contain the murine transferrin receptor gene. For possibly better iron uptake the virus strains GLV-1h154, GLV-1h155, GLV-1h156, and GLV-1h157 were generated, each with a version of a ferritin gene and a transferrin receptor gene. GLV-1h154 carries the genes that encode bacterioferritin and human transferrin receptor, GLV-1h155 the human ferritin H-chain gene and the human transferrin receptor gene. GLV-1h156 and GLV-1h157 infected cells both express the mouse transferrin receptor and bacterioferritin or human ferritin H-chain, respectively. The virus strains GLV-1h186 and GLV-1h187 were generated to contain a mutated form of the ferritin light chain, which was shown to result in iron overload and the wildtype light chain gene, respectively. The gene encoding the Divalent Metal Transporter 1, which is a major protein in the uptake of iron, was inserted in the virus strain GLV-1h102. The virus strain GLV-1h184 contains the magA gene of the magnetotactic bacterium Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum, which produces magnetic nanoparticles for orientation in the earth’s magnetic field. Initially the infection and replication capability of all the virus strains were analyzed and compared to that of the parental virus strain GLV-1h68, revealing that all the viruses were able to infect cells of the human cancer cell lines A549 and GI-101A. All constructs exhibited a course of infection comparable to that of GLV-1h68. Next, to investigate the expression of the foreign proteins in GI-101A and A549 cells with protein analytical methods, SDS-gelelectrophoresis, Western blots and ELISAs were performed. The proteins, which were expressed under the control of the strong promoters, could be detected using these methods. To be able to successfully detect the protein expression of MagA and DMT1, which were expressed under the control of the weak promoter, the more sensitive method RT-PCR was used to at least confirm the transcription of the inserted genes. The determination of the iron content in infected GI-101A and A549 cells showed that infection with all used virus strains led to iron accumulation in comparison to uninfected cells, even infection with the parental virus strain GLV-1h68. The synthetic phytochelatin EC20 was also shown to enhance the accumulation of different heavy metals in bacterial cultures. In vivo experiments with A549 tumor-bearing athymic nude mice revealed that 24 days post infection virus particles were found mainly in the tumor. The virus-mediated expression of recombinant proteins in the tumors was detected successfully by Western blot. Iron accumulation in tumor lysates was investigated by using the ferrozine assay and led to the result that GLV-1h68-infected tumors had the highest iron content. Histological stainings confirmed the finding that iron accumulation was not a direct result of the insertion of genes encoding iron-accumulating proteins in the virus genome. Furthermore virus-injected tumorous mice were analyzed using MRI technology. Two different measurements were performed, the first scan being done with a seven Tesla small animal scanner seven days post infection whereas the second scan was performed using a three Tesla human scanner 21 days after virus injection. Tumors of mice injected with the virus strains GLV-1h113 and GLV-1h184 were shown to exhibit shortened T2 and T2* relaxation times, which indicates enhanced iron accumulation. In conclusion, the experiments in this study suggest that the bacterioferritin-encoding virus strain GLV-1h113 and the magA-encoding virus strain GLV-1h184 are promising candidates to be used for cancer imaging after further analyzation and optimization.
Over the past 30 years, much effort and financial support have been invested in the fight against cancer, yet cancer still represents the leading cause of death in the world. Conventional therapies for treatment of cancer are predominantly directed against tumor cells. Recently however, new treatments options have paid more attention to exploiting the advantage of targeting the tumor stroma instead.
Vaccinia virus (VACV) has played an important role in human medicine since the 18th century as a vaccination against smallpox. In our laboratory, the recombinant, replication-competent vaccinia virus, GLV-1h68, was shown to enter, colonize and destroy cancer cells both in cell culture, and in vivo, in xenograft models (Zhang, Yu et al. 2007). In addition, combined therapy of GLV-1h68 and anti-VEGF immunotherapy significantly enhanced antitumor therapy in vivo (Frentzen, Yu et al. 2009).
In this study, we constructed several new recombinant VACVs carrying genes encoding different antibodies against fibroblast activation protein (FAP) in stroma (GLV-1h282), nanobody against the extracellular domain of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR, GLV-1h442) or antibodies targeting both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and EGFR (GLV-1h444) or targeting both VEGF and FAP (GLV-1h446).
The expression of the recombinant proteins was first verified using protein analytical methods, SDS-gel electrophoresis, Western blot analysis, immunoprecipitation (IP) assays and ELISA assays. The proteins were detected after infection of the cells with the different VACVs and the recombinant proteins purified by affinity adsorption. The purified antibodies were shown to specifically bind to their respective antigens.
Secondly, the infection and replication capability of all the virus strains was analyzed in cell culture using several human tumor cell lines (A549, FaDu or DU145), revealing that all the new recombinant VACVs were able to infect cancer cells with comparable efficiency to the parental viruses from which they were derived.
Thirdly, the antitumor efficacy of the new recombinant VACVs was evaluated in vivo using several human cancer xenograft models in mice. In A549 and DU145 xenografts, the new recombinant VACVs exhibited an enhanced therapeutic efficacy compared to GLV-1h68 with no change in toxicity in mice. In the FaDu xenograft, treatment with GLV-1h282 (anti-FAP) significantly slowed down the speed of tumor growth compared to GLV-1h68. Additionally, treatment with the recombinant VACVs expressed the various antibodies achieved comparable or superior therapeutic effects compared to treatment with a combination of GLV-1h68 and the commercial therapeutic antibodies, Avastin, Erbitux or both.
Next, the virus distribution in tumors and organs of treated mice was evaluated. For most of the viruses, the virus titer in tumors was not signficantly diffferent than GLV-1h68. However, for animals treated with GLV-1h282, the virus titer in tumors was significantly higher than with GLV-1h68. This may be the reason for enhanced antitumor efficacy of GLV-1h282 in vivo.
Lastly, the underlying mechanisms of therapeutic antibody-enhanced antitumor effects were investigated by immunohistochemistry. Blood vessels density and cell proliferation in tumors were suppressed after treatment with the antibody-encoded VACVs. The results indicated that the suppression of angiogenesis or cell proliferation in tumors may cause the observed therapeutic effect.
In conclusion, the results of the studies presented here support the hypothesis that the treatment of solid tumors with a combination of oncolytic virotherapy and immunotherapy has an additive effect over each treatment alone. Moreover, expression of the immunotherapeutic antibody by the oncolytic VACV locally in the tumor enhances the antitumor effect over systemic treatment with the same antibody. Combined, these results indicate that therapy with oncolytic VACVs expressing-therapeutic antibodies may be a promising approach for the treatment of cancer.
Background
Valid indicators are required to measure surgical quality. These ideally should be sensitive and selective while being easy to understand and adjust. We propose here the MTL30 quality indicator which takes into account 30-day mortality, transfer within 30 days, and a length of stay of 30 days as composite markers of an uneventful operative/postoperative course.
Methods
Patients documented in the StuDoQ|Colon and StuDoQ|Rectal carcinoma register of the German Society for General and Visceral Surgery (DGAV) were analyzed with regard to the effects of patient and tumor-related risk factors as well as postoperative complications on the MTL30.
Results
In univariate analysis, the MTL30 correlated significantly with patient and tumor-related risk factors such as ASA score (p<0.001), age (p<0.001), or UICC stage (p<0.001). There was a high sensitivity for the postoperative occurrence of complications such as re-operations (p<0.001) or subsequent bleeding (p<0.001), as well as a significant correlation with the CDC classification (p<0.001). In multivariate analysis, patient-related risk factors and postoperative complications significantly increased the odds ratio for a positive MTL30. A negative MTL30 showed a high specify for an uneventful operative and postoperative course.
Conclusion
The MTL30 is a valid indicator of colorectal surgical quality.
No abstract available
More recently, it became clear that conclusions drawn from traditional ecological theory may be altered substantially if the spatial dimension of species interactions is considered explicitly. Regardless of the details of these models, spatially explicit simulations of ecological processes have nearly universally shown that spatial or spatio-temporal patterns in species distributions can emerge even from homogeneous starting conditions; limited dispersal is one of the key factors responsible for the development of such aggregated and patchy distributions (cf., Pacala 1986, Holmes et al. 1994, Molofsky 1994, Tilman 1994, Bascompte and Sole 1995, 1997, 1998, Jeltsch et al. 1999). In line with these ideas, we wish to draw attention to the fact that in heterogeneous landscapes differences in characteristic dispersal distances between species are a sufficient precondition for the emergence of a successional pattern. We will use a simple, spatially explicit simulation program to demonstrate the validity of this statement. We will also show that the speed of the successional progress depends on scale and heterogeneity in the distribution of suitable habitat.
Floral nectar is considered the most important floral reward for attracting pollinators. It contains large amounts of carbohydrates besides variable concentrations of amino acids and thus represents an important food source for many pollinators. Its nutrient content and composition can, however, strongly vary within and between plant species. The factors driving this variation in nectar quality are still largely unclear.
We investigated factors underlying interspecific variation in macronutrient composition of floral nectar in 34 different grassland plant species. Specifically, we tested for correlations between the phylogenetic relatedness and morphology of plants and the carbohydrate (C) and total amino acid (AA) composition and C:AA ratios of nectar.
We found that compositions of carbohydrates and (essential) amino acids as well as C:AA ratios in nectar varied significantly within and between plant species. They showed no clear phylogenetic signal. Moreover, variation in carbohydrate composition was related to family‐specific structural characteristics and combinations of morphological traits. Plants with nectar‐exposing flowers, bowl‐ or parabolic‐shaped flowers, as often found in the Apiaceae and Asteraceae, had nectar with higher proportions of hexoses, indicating a selective pressure to decelerate evaporation by increasing nectar osmolality.
Our study suggests that variation in nectar nutrient composition is, among others, affected by family‐specific combinations of morphological traits. However, even within species, variation in nectar quality is high. As nectar quality can strongly affect visitation patterns of pollinators and thus pollination success, this intra‐ and interspecific variation requires more studies to fully elucidate the underlying causes and the consequences for pollinator behaviour.
Transmission of Trypanosoma brucei by tsetse flies involves the deposition of the cell cycle-arrested metacyclic life cycle stage into mammalian skin at the site of the fly’s bite. We introduce an advanced human skin equivalent and use tsetse flies to naturally infect the skin with trypanosomes. We detail the chronological order of the parasites’ development in the skin by single-cell RNA sequencing and find a rapid activation of metacyclic trypanosomes and differentiation to proliferative parasites. Here we show that after the establishment of a proliferative population, the parasites enter a reversible quiescent state characterized by slow replication and a strongly reduced metabolism. We term these quiescent trypanosomes skin tissue forms, a parasite population that may play an important role in maintaining the infection over long time periods and in asymptomatic infected individuals.
Although the concept of botanical carnivory has been known since Darwin's time, the molecular mechanisms that allow animal feeding remain unknown, primarily due to a complete lack of genomic information. Here, we show that the transcriptomic landscape of the Dionaea trap is dramatically shifted toward signal transduction and nutrient transport upon insect feeding, with touch hormone signaling and protein secretion prevailing. At the same time, a massive induction of general defense responses is accompanied by the repression of cell death-related genes/processes. We hypothesize that the carnivory syndrome of Dionaea evolved by exaptation of ancient defense pathways, replacing cell death with nutrient acquisition.
„Die berufspolitische Situation für die Humangenetischen Institute hat sich an den Universitäten in den letzten zwei Jahren leider nicht verbessert. Vielen Instituten wurde der Zugang zur Erbringung von Kassenleistungen deutlich erschwert bzw. gänzlich entzogen.“ (Grimm, T.; Zerres, K., 2005, S. 41). Eine Analyse der Rechtsform und Aufbauorganisation sowie der Leistungen des Instituts für Humangenetik an der Universität Würzburg kann als Grundlage dienen, um die Auswirkungen einer entzogenen Kassenzulassung besser verstehen zu können. Zudem ermöglicht eine solche Betrachtung die Ableitung von Erfordernissen, die eine optimale Rechtsform und Aufbauorganisation des Instituts für Humangenetik an der Universität Würzburg erfüllen sollte. Zusammenfassend können dann die aktuellen und zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen für die humangenetische Leistungserbringung bei bestehender Rechtsform und Aufbauorganisation beschrieben werden. Es wird deutlich, dass aufgrund eines drohenden Entzuges der Kassenzulassung eine Gefährdung der Erbringung humangenetischer Leistungen an der Universität Würzburg besteht. Die Finanzierung der erbrachten Leistungen in der Patientenversorgung wird zu ca. 75% von den gesetzlichen Krankenkassen getragen. Ein Wegbrechen eines solchen Leistungsumfanges hätte kaum kompensierbare Auswirkungen auf Forschung, Lehre, Weiterbildung und die Patientenversorgung an sich. Durch die Reformen des SGB aus dem Jahre 2004 sind verschiedene Alternativen zur bestehenden Rechtsform und Aufbauorganisation möglich geworden. Hierbei handelt es sich um Hochschulambulanzen (gem. §117 SGB V), Integrierte Versorgung (gem. §140 SGB V) und Medizinische Versorgungszentren (gem. §95 SGB V). Zudem gibt es die Möglichkeit einer „Praxis im Institut“-Kooperation. Diese Alternativen werden in der hier vorliegenden Arbeit kurz einzeln charakterisiert, um dann eine Bewertung der möglichen Rechtsformen und Aufbauorganisationen gemäß am Institut bestehender Erfordernisse zu ermöglichen. Die vergleichende Betrachtung wird zeigen, dass ein Medizinisches Versorgungszentrum (MVZ) eine gute Möglichkeit darstellt, die beschriebene Problematik zu lösen und die Erfordernisse des Instituts zu erfüllen. Im Anschluss werden die rechtlichen und organisatorischen Ausgestaltungsmöglichkeiten eines MVZs zur Erbringung humangenetischer Leistungen beleuchtet. Hierbei wird im Besonderen auf die gesetzlichen Gründungsvoraussetzungen eingegangen. Die Anforderungen an Gründer, Rechtsform, Leistungserbringer und ärztliche Leitung werden detailliert beschrieben, und die jeweiligen Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten im Hinblick auf die am Institut bestehenden Erfordernisse gewertet. Im Anschluss kann der Zulassungsprozess des MVZs an sich betrachtet werden.
Angesichts des dramatischen, weltweiten Anstiegs der Prävalenz von Demenzerkrankungen und der aktuellen, unzureichenden Therapieansätze ist die Bereitstellung neuer, wirkungsvoller Behandlungsoptionen von größter Bedeutung. Technologische, pharmakologische und verhaltensbasierte Verfahren des Memory Enhancement könnten zur Lösung dieses Problems beitragen: Hierzu zählt die Stammzelltransplantation, die in mehreren Tierstudien zu einer Verbesserung der Gedächtnisfunktion führte. Zudem wird seit Längerem an einer Impfung gegen die Alzheimer-Krankheit mittels β-Amyloid-Antikörpern geforscht. Ein weiterer therapeutischer Ansatz für die Alzheimer-Krankheit besteht in der optogenetischen Stimulation spezifischer hippocampaler Engramm-Zellen, durch die bei einem Maus-Modell verloren gegangene Erinnerungen wiederhergestellt werden konnten. Unkonventionelle Pharmazeutika wie Erythropoetin führten in Tierstudien und bei Patienten mit neuropsychiatrischen Erkrankungen zu einer Verbesserung der kognitiven Fähigkeiten und des Gedächtnisses. Eine Modifikation der Ernährung und der Einsatz von Pro- und Präbiotika beeinflussen das Gedächtnis über eine Manipulation der Darm-Hirn-Achse. Verhaltensbasierte Maßnahmen wie körperliche Aktivität und der Einsatz von Mnemotechniken stellen effektive Ansätze des Memory Enhancement dar, welche bereits heute von gesunden Individuen implementiert werden können. Für die Anwendung von Augmented Reality (AR) konnten kognitionsfördernde Wirkungen beim Lernen neuroanatomischer Themen und dem Zusammenbau von Objekten nachgewiesen werden. Besonders vielversprechend stellt sich die Entwicklung einer Gedächtnisprothese dar, durch die vergessene Informationen bei Personen mit stattgehabtem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma und apoplektischem Insult reaktiviert werden könnten. Memory Enhancement ist prinzipiell bereits heute bei gesunden und kranken Individuen anwendbar und verspricht wirksame zukünftige Präventions- und Therapieoptionen. Ein realer Einsatz in der klinischen Praxis ist in naher Zukunft jedoch noch nicht zu erwarten.
Die Gattung Listeria umfasst sechs bekannte Arten ubiquitär vorkommender Gram-positiver, nicht sporulierender Stäbchenbakterien. Von diesen Spezies sind Listeria monocytogenes und L. ivanovii in der Lage bei Mensch und Tier das Krankheitsbild der Listeriose zu verursachen (Rocourt & Seeliger, 1985; Vázquez-Boland et al., 2001b; Weis & Seeliger, 1975), wobei L. ivanovii vorwiegend bei Tieren als Krankheitserreger vorkommt (Cummins et al., 1994; Hof & Hefner, 1988). L. monocytogenes gilt als wichtiges Modell für ein intrazelluläres Pathogen, das mit Hilfe seiner Internaline auch in nicht-professionelle Phagozyten invadieren (Gaillard et al., 1991; Lingnau et al., 1995) und sich dank einer Reihe weiterer Virulenzfaktoren im Zytoplasma vermehren, fortbewegen und Nachbarzellen infizieren kann (Tilney & Portnoy, 1989). Die beiden pathogenen Arten und das apathogene L. seeligeri besitzen eine als LIPI-1 bezeichnete Pathogenitätsinsel (Gouin et al., 1994; Kreft et al., 2002). Internalingene sind bei L. monocytogenes teilweise geclustert und bei L. ivanovii zu einem großen Teil in einer LIPI-2 genannten Pathogenitätsinsel organisiert (Domínguez-Bernal et al., 2006; Dramsi et al., 1997; Gaillard et al., 1991; Raffelsbauer et al., 1998). Die Expression vieler dieser Virulenzgene wird durch das zentrale Regulatorprotein PrfA gesteuert, dessen Gen prfA selbst Teil der LIPI-1 ist (Domínguez-Bernal et al., 2006; Leimeister-Wächter et al., 1990; Lingnau et al., 1995; Mengaud et al., 1991a). Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollten die Internaline InlC, InlE, InlG und InlH von L. monocytogenes näher untersucht werden. Dazu wurden rekombinante His6-markierte Internaline aufgereinigt und polyklonale Antiseren gegen die Internaline A, B, E, G und H hergestellt. Darüber hinaus gelang die Herstellung zweier monoklonaler Antikörper gegen InlG. Obwohl die Antikörper gegen InlG und InlE ihre rekombinanten Antigene gut dekorieren, konnten mit ihnen keine Proteine in Zellwand- oder Überstandspräparaten von L. monocytogenes EGD und EGDe detektiert werden. Das Antiserum gegen InlH kreuzreagierte mit InlA und auch schwach mit anderen Internalinen. In Zellwandpräparaten von L. monocytogenes dekorierte es ein ~50 kDa schweres Protein, welches mit InlH identisch sein könnte. Es fehlt in inlG/H/E Deletionsmutanten und wird in einer inlA/B Deletionsmutante stärker exprimiert. Im Kulturüberstand ist es etwas schwerer, wie man es von einem Protein mit LPXTG Motiv erwartet, das nicht von Sortase (Bierne et al., 2002; Garandeau et al., 2002) prozessiert wurde. In L. monocytogenes EGDe wird dieses ~50 kDa Protein um ein bis zwei dekadische Größenordungen stärker exprimiert als in L. monocytogenes EGD. Die Expression des Proteins war bei 30 und 37 °C gleich stark und wurde nicht durch PrfA reguliert. In Zellwandpräparaten von L. ivanovii ATCC 19119 dekorierten die Seren gegen InlA und InlH ein Protein das in seiner Größe dem InlA von L. monocytogenes entspricht. Mit Hexosaminidase Assays zur Untersuchung von Zelladhärenz (nach Landegren, 1984) an rekombinante His6-markierte Internaline konnte keine Interaktion der Internaline InlE, InlG oder InlH mit Oberflächenfaktoren von Caco-2, HeLa oder HepG2 Zellen nachgewiesen werden, während Positivkontrollen mit InlA und InlB weitestgehend erwartungsgemäß ausfielen. InlC besitzt jedoch offenbar einen bisher noch nicht genauer identifizierten Rezeptor auf der Zelloberfläche. An InlC und EGF adhärierten Caco-2 Zellen stark wachstumsphasenabhängig und etwa tausendfach schwächer als an InlA. Die beste Bindung erfolgte bei semikonfluent gewachsenen Zellen, die am Vortag ausgesät wurden. Unter diesen Bedingungen war auch die von Bergmann et al. beobachtete unterstützende Wirkung von InlC auf die InlA-abhängige Invasion am größten (Bergmann et al., 2002). In dieser Arbeit wurden außerdem die Promotoren von Internalingenen aus L. ivanovii, sowie weitere Virulenzgene (plcA, hly, actA) der Spezies L. monocytogenes, L. ivanovii und L. seeligeri mit Hilfe eines zellfreien in vitro Transkriptionssystems (Lalic-Mülthaler et al., 2001) untersucht, um deren PrfA-Abhängigkeit und Aktivität unabhängig von physiologischen Faktoren analysieren zu können, da die PrfA-Aktivität in vivo pleiotrop reguliert wird (Dickneite et al., 1998; Ermolaeva et al., 2004; Milenbachs et al., 1997; Milenbachs Lukowiak et al., 2004; Renzoni et al., 1997; Ripio et al., 1996). Dafür wurde in dieser Arbeit RNA-Polymerase aus L. monocytogenes ΔprfA ΔsigB (Stritzker et al., 2005) isoliert. Gleichzeitig wurde die Aktivität von rekombinanten His6-markierten PrfA Proteinen untersucht. Dazu wurden die PrfA Proteine von L. monocytogenes (m-PrfA und hyperaktives m-PrfA* (Ripio et al., 1997b)), L. ivanovii (i-PrfA) und L. seeligeri (s-PrfA), so wie ein Hybridprotein (sm-PrfA) aufgereinigt. Das Hybridprotein sm-PrfA entspricht s-PrfA bis auf die letzten 38 Aminosäurereste, die durch jene von m-PrfA ersetzt wurden. ...