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For the differentiation of a embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to neuronal cells (NCs) a complex and coordinated gene regulation program is needed. One important control element for neuronal differentiation is the repressor element 1 silencing transcription factor (REST) complex, which represses neuronal gene expression in non-neuronal cells. Crucial effector proteins of the REST complex are small phosphatases such as the CTDSPs (C-terminal domain small phosphatases) that regulate polymerase II activity by dephosphorylating the C-terminal domain of the polymerase, thereby repressing target genes. The stepwise inactivation of REST, including the CTDSPs, leads to the induction of a neuron-specific gene program, which ultimately induces the formation of neurons. The spatio-temporal control of REST and its effector components is therefore a crucial step for neurogenesis.
In zebrafish it was shown that the REST-associated CTDSP2 is negatively regulated by the micro RNA (miR) -26b. Interestingly, the miR-26b is encoded in an intron of the primary transcript of CTDSP2. This gives the fundament of an intrinsic regulatory negative feedback loop, which is essential for the proceeding of neurogenesis. This feedback loop is active during neurogenesis, but inactive in non-neuronal cells. The reason for this is that the maturation of the precursor miR (pre-miR) to the mature miR-26 is arrested in non neuronal cells, but not in neurons. As only mature miRs are actively repressing genes, the regulation of miR-26 processing is an essential step in neurogenesis.
In this study, the molecular basis of miR-26 processing regulation in the context of neurogenesis was addressed. The mature miR is processed from two larger precursors: First the primary transcript is cleaved by the enzyme DROSHA in the nucleus to form the pre-miR. The pre-miR is exported from the nucleus and processed further through the enzyme DICER to yield the mature miR. The mature miR can regulate gene expression in association with the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).
Multiple different scenarios in which miR processing was regulated were proposed and experimentally tested. Microinjection studies using Xenopus leavis oocytes showed that slowdown or blockage of the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport are not the reason for delayed pre-miR-26 processing. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo miR-processing assays showed that maturation is most likely regulated through a in trans acting factor, which blocks processing in non neuronal cells.
Through RNA affinity chromatographic assays using zebrafish and murine lysates I was able to isolate and identify proteins that interact specifically with pre-miR-26 and could by this influence its biogenesis. Potential candidates are FMRP/FXR1/2, ZNF346 and Eral1, whose functional characterisation in the context of miR-biogenesis could now be addressed.
The second part of my thesis was executed in close colaboration with the laboratory of Prof. Albrecht Müller. The principal question was addressed how miR-26 influences neuronal gene expression and which genes are primarily affected. This research question could be addressed by using a cell culture model system, which mimics ex vivo the differentiation of ESCs to NCs via neuronal progenitor.
For the functional analysis of miR-26 knock out cell lines were generated by the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. miR-26 deficient ESC keep their pluripotent state and are able to develop NPC, but show major impairment in differentiating to NCs. Through RNA deep sequencing the miR-26 induced transcriptome differences could be analysed.
On the level of mRNAs it could be shown, that the expression of neuronal gene is downregulated in miR-26 deficient NCs. Interestingly, the deletion of miR-26 leads to selectively decreased levels of miRs, which on one hand regulate the REST complex and on the other hand are under transcriptional control by REST themself. This data and the discovery that induction of miR-26 leads to enrichment of other REST regulating miRs indicates that miR-26 initiates neurogenesis through stepwise inactivation of the REST complex.
Die Rolle von Chronophin bei Schlaganfall-induziertem Funktionsverlust der Blut-Hirn-Schranke
(2018)
Der ischämische Schlaganfall ist mit einer jährlichen Inzidenz von 200/100 000 Einwohnern die häufigste Gefäßerkrankung in Deutschland. Atherothrombose, arterielle Hypertonie und Embolien unterschiedlichen Ursprungs sind die wesentlichen Ursachen des ischämischen Schlaganfalls. Die neurologischen Defizite nach einem Schlaganfall resultieren aus einem gestörten zerebralen Blutfluss und somit einer insuffizienten Sauerstoffversorgung. Zusätzlich ist die Ödembildung, welche von einer gesteigerten Permeabilität der Blut-Hirn-Schranke verursacht wird, am neuronalen Zelltod beteiligt.
Chronophin ist eine Aktinzytoskelett-regulierende Serin-Phosphatase. In einem ischämischen Schlaganfall-Modell konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass der globale Verlust von Chronophin zu einer vermehrten Ödembildung und einem aggravierten neurologischen Zustand der Mäuse im Vergleich zu wildtypischen Kontrollen führte. Hirnlysate von wildtypischen Mäusen zeigten verringerte Chronophin-Level in der vom Schlaganfall betroffenen Hemisphäre. Jedoch konnten initiale immunhistochemische und zellbiologische Untersuchungen weder Chronophin-abhängige Veränderungen der Blut-Hirn-Schranke feststellen noch einen zerebralen Zelltyp identifizieren, der für den schützenden Effekt von Chronophin verantwortlich ist.
Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf einen komplexen, vielzelligen Mechanismus hin, dem die schützende Rolle von Chronophin im ischämischen Schlaganfall unterliegt. Die Entschlüsselung dieses Mechanismus ist Aufgabe künftiger Untersuchungen.
The work presented in this thesis covers the effects of early-life adversity in the context of altered serotonin (5-HT; 5-hydroxytryptamine) system functioning in mice. The main body is focussing on a screening approach identifying molecular processes, potentially involved in distinct behavioural manifestations that emerge from or are concomitant with early adversity and, with regard to some behavioural manifestations, dependent on the functioning of the 5-HT system.
For cellular viability, transcription is a fundamental process. Hereby, the DNA plays the most elemental and highly versatile role. It has long been known that promoters contain conserved and often well-defined motifs, which dictate the site of transcription initiation by providing binding sites for regulatory proteins. However, research within the last decade revealed that it is promoters lacking conserved promoter motifs and transcribing constitutively expressed genes that constitute the majority of promoters in eukaryotes. While the process of transcription initiation is well studied, whether defined DNA sequence motifs are required for the transcription of constitutively expressed genes in eukaryotes remains unknown. In the highly divergent protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, most of the proteincoding genes are organized in large polycistronic transcription units. The genes within one polycistronic transcription unit are generally unrelated and transcribed by a common transcription start site for which no RNA polymerase II promoter motifs have been identified so far. Thus, it is assumed that transcription initiation is not regulated but how transcription is initiated in T. brucei is not known. This study aimed to investigate the requirement of DNA sequence motifs and chromatin structures for transcription initiation in an organism lacking transcriptional regulation. To this end, I performed a systematic analysis to investigate the dependence of transcription initiation on the DNA sequence. I was able to identify GT-rich promoter elements required for directional transcription initiation and targeted deposition of the histone variant H2A.Z, a conserved component during transcription initiation. Furthermore, nucleosome positioning data in this work provide evidence that sites of transcription initiation are rather characterized by broad regions of open and more accessible chromatin than narrow nucleosome depleted regions as it is the case in other eukaryotes. These findings highlight the importance of chromatin during transcription initiation. Polycistronic RNA in T. brucei is separated by adding an independently transcribed miniexon during trans-splicing. The data in this work suggest that nucleosome occupancy plays an important role during RNA maturation by slowing down the progressing polymerase and thereby facilitating the choice of the proper splice site during trans-splicing. Overall, this work investigated the role of the DNA sequence during transcription initiation and nucleosome positioning in a highly divergent eukaryote. Furthermore, the findings shed light on the conservation of the requirement of DNA motifs during transcription initiation and the regulatory potential of chromatin during RNA maturation. The findings improve the understanding of gene expression regulation in T. brucei, a eukaryotic parasite lacking transcriptional Regulation.
In mammals, anucleate blood platelets are constantly produced by their giant bone marrow (BM) progenitors, the megakaryocytes (MKs), which originate from hematopoietic stem cells. Megakaryopoiesis and thrombopoiesis have been studied intensively, but the exact mechanisms that control platelet generation from MKs remain poorly understood. Using multiphoton intravital microscopy (MP-IVM), thrombopoiesis and proplatelet formation were analyzed in the murine BM in real-time and in vivo, identifying an important role for several proteins, including Profilin1, TRPM7 and RhoA in thrombopoiesis. Currently, it is thought that blood cell precursors, such as MKs, migrate from the endosteal niche towards the vascular niche during maturation. In contrast to this paradigm, it was shown that MKs are homogeneously distributed within the dense BM blood vessel network, leaving no space for vessel-distant niches. By combining results from in vivo MP-IVM, in situ light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) of the intact BM as well as computational simulations, surprisingly slow MK migration, limited intervascular space and a vessel-biased MK pool were revealed, contradicting the current concept of directed MK migration during thrombopoiesis.
Platelets play an essential role in hemostasis and thrombosis, but also in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. Ischemic stroke, which is mainly caused by thromboembolic occlusion of brain arteries, is among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide with limited treatment options. The platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI is a key player in arterial thrombosis and a critical determinant of stroke outcome, making its signaling pathway an attractive target for pharmacological intervention. The spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) is an essential signaling mediator downstream of GPVI, but also of other platelet and immune cell receptors. In this thesis, it was demonstrated that mice lacking Syk specifically in platelets are protected from arterial thrombus formation and ischemic stroke, but display unaltered hemostasis. Furthermore, it was shown that mice treated with the novel, selective and orally bioavailable Syk inhibitor BI1002494 were protected in a model of arterial thrombosis and had smaller infarct sizes and a significantly better neurological outcome 24 h after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO), also when BI1002494 was administered therapeutically, i.e. after ischemia. These results provide direct evidence that pharmacological Syk inhibition might become a safe therapeutic strategy. The T cell receptor chain-associated protein kinase of 70 kDA (Zap-70) is also a spleen tyrosine kinase family member, but has a lower intrinsic activity compared to Syk and is expressed in T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, but not in platelets. Unexpectedly, arterial thrombus formation in vivo can occur independently of Syk kinase function as revealed by studies in Sykki mice, which express Zap-70 under the control of intrinsic Syk promoter elements.
Die Synthese der mRNA durch die RNA-Polymerase II ist der zentrale und kritische Prozess im Rahmen
der Transkriptionsregulation Protein-kodierender Gene. Viele Jahrzehnte der intensiven Erforschung brachten viele Details über diesen Mechanismus zu Tage, der von einer unglaublichen Komplexität und Dynamik geprägt ist. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass der Mediatorkomplex eine zentrale Rolle bei der Regulation der Polymerase II-abhängigen Transkription spielt, im Besonderen der Initiation. In der Funktion einer Schnittstelle verknüpft er die allgemeine Transkriptionsmaschinerie mit den Gen- spezifischen Transkriptionsregulatoren. Durch die Interaktion des Schwanzmoduls mit diesen Regulatoren und der Interaktion des Kopfmoduls mit der Polymerase II verbindet er wie eine Brücke die oberhalb des Promotors liegenden Aktivatorsequenzen mit dem Kernpromotor und initiiert so die Ausbildung des Pre-Initiationskomplexes. Darüber hinaus mehren sich gerade in den letzten Jahren die Hinweise darauf, dass der Mediator auch noch an anderen Prozessen der Transkription beteiligt ist. Zu diesen gehören z.B. die Elongation, die Ausbildung von Genschlaufen oder auch der Umbau der Chromatinstruktur. In Anbetracht der Tatsachen, dass der Mediator (a) aus bis zu 25 Untereinheiten mit flexibler Zusammensetzung besteht, (b) eine flexible Struktur besitzt und (c) umfassend und dynamisch über posttranslationale Modifikationen modifiziert ist, erscheint es durchaus möglich, dass der Mediator all diese Funktionen ausfüllt und die Rolle einer allgemeinen Transkriptionsplattform einnimmt. Im Zusammenhang mit dieser Dissertationsschrift ist es gelungen, den Mediator innerhalb all dieser Funktionen „abzubilden“ und die bisher umfassendste Interaktomanalyse dieses Komplexes zu präsentieren. Durch die optimierten Bedingungen der Zelllyse und Co-Immunopräzipitation, gelang es auch transiente Interaktionspartner zu isolieren. Durch das metabolische Markieren der Wildtypkontrolle konnten außerdem unspezifische und spezifische Interaktionen eindeutig voneinander unterschieden werden. Über 400 Proteine wurden als signifikante Interaktionspartner des Mediators identifiziert. Viele dieser Proteine konnten als vollständige Komplexe zusammengefasst werden, z.B die RNA-Polymerase II, alle allgemeinen Transkriptionsfaktoren, der SAGA-Komplex, viele Komplexe des Chromatin Remodelings und stark acetylierte Histone. Viele weitere Interaktionspartner spielen zudem eine Rolle bei der co-transkriptionalen Prozessierung der mRNA, wie z.B dem Splicing, dem mRNA-decapping oder Abbau. Darüber hinaus gibt es starke Hinweise darauf, dass der Mediator auch mit der Polymerase I und III interagiert und an der ribosomalen Biogenese beteiligt ist. Weitere
Analysen zeigten, dass das Interaktom zudem hochdynamisch ist
Der Tumorsupressor APC ist in der Mehrzahl aller Fälle kolorektaler Karzinome bereits in
der initialen Phase der Karzinogenese mutiert. Diese Mutationen führen zu einer aberranten Aktivierung des Wnt-Signalweges sowie zu weiteren die Karzinogenese vorrantreibenden Aktivitäten, beispielsweise einem veränderten Migrationsverhalten. Dieser Dissertation
zu Grunde liegt die Idee, dass durch die Trunkierung des APC-Proteins aber auch Abhängigkeiten von Genaktivitäten entstehen, die zuvor entbehrlich waren. Solche synthetisch
letalen Gene sollten in einem high-content shRNA-Screen gefunden werden.
Für die Durchführung des Screens wurde ein von der SW480 Kolonkarzinomzelllinie
abgeleitetes, isogenes Zellsystem generiert, welches durch Induktion mit Doxyzyklin das
vollständige APC-Allel (FL-APC) exprimiert. Infolge dieser Expression zeigen die Zellen
einen weniger malignen Phänotyp. Dies spiegelt sich darin wider, dass die Zellen durch
FL-APC Expression in ihrer Wnt-Signalwegsaktivität eingeschränkt werden. Doxyzyklininduzierte Zellen sind schlechter in der Lage ohne Adhäsion zu proliferieren als nicht induzierte Zellen. Andererseits ist ihre Fähigkeit einem FKS-gradienten entlang zu migrieren
verbessert.
Der shRNA-Screen wurde mit der Decipher shRNA-Bibliothek durchgeführt. Diese
enthält 27.500 verschiedene shRNAs mit Interferenzaktivität gegen 5.000 mRNAs, die potentiell pharmakologisch inhibierbare Proteine kodieren. Die besten zwei Kandidaten für
eine synthetisch letale Interaktion mit trunkiertem APC, BCL2L1 und EIF2B5 wurden im
Verlauf einer Masterarbeit bzw. direkt in dieser Disseration validiert. EIF2B5 zeigte in vitro nach Depletion durch unterschiedliche shRNAs einen di erentiellen Proliferationse ekt
bei FL-APC induzierten im Vergleich zu kontrollbehandelten Zellen. Dieser di erentielle
E ekt konnte in einem weiteren Modellsystem, SW480 Zellen mit konstitutiver FL-APC
Expression, ebenfalls validiert werden.
Durch Expression einer shRNA mit Aktivität gegen EIF2B5 werden in beiden Zellsystem die unfolded protein response (UPR) Gene DDIT3 und splXBP1 aktiviert. Interessanterweise werden durch die Expression von FL-APC diese Gene reprimiert. Im Promotor
der EIF2B5-mRNA be ndet sich eine Bindestelle für MYC. Es ist denkbar, dass durch die
Expression von FL-APC eine globale Veränderung der Genexpression vorgenommen wird,
die einerseits eine Repression von EIF2B5 nach sich zieht aber andererseits eine hierdurch
ausgelöste ER-Stress Antwort verhindert. Eine Inhibition von EIF2B5 ohne diese Adaption
andererseits führt nach diesem Model zu einer UPR-aktivierten Apoptose.
In einem zweiten Projekt wurde das überraschende Verhalten von Kolonkarzinomzellen untersucht, die nach Zugabe von BEZ235, einem dualen PI3K/mTOR Inhibitor, trotz
gegenteiliger Erwartungen MYC-Proteinmengen erhöhen. Eine Repression wurde erwar-
tet, weil die Inhibition von PI3K einerseits zu einer proteasomalen Destabiliserung und
andererseits die mTOR Inhibition zu einer verringerten Synthese von MYC führen sollte.
Während bereits gezeigt werden konnte, dass durch einen FOXO-vermittelten Mechanismus MAPK-abhängig die MYC-Expression verstärkt wird, wurde in dieser Dissertation
die erwartete Translationsinhibition untersucht. BEZ235 inhibiert zwar CAP-abhängige
Translation, das MYC Protein wird jedoch aufgrund einer IRES-vermittelten Translation
weiterhin exprimiert. Silvestrol, ein Inhibitor der Helikase eIF4A andererseits interveniert
mit CAP- und IRES-abhängiger Translation und kann die MYC-Proteinkonzentrationen
verringern. Wir konnten zudem feststellen, dass die Applikation von Silvestrol auch in vivo
möglich und wirksam ist und zudem tolleriert wird. Dies gibt Anlass zur Ho nung, dass
eine Intervention der Translation auch im Menschen eine valide Strategie zur Behandlung
MYC-getriebener Tumore sein könnte.
The human-bacterial pathogen interaction is a complex process that results from
a prolonged evolutionary arms race in the struggle for survival. The pathogen employs
virulence strategies to achieve host colonization, and the latter counteracts using defense
programs. The encounter of both organisms results in drastic physiological changes
leading to stress, which is an ancient response accompanying infection. Recent evidence
suggests that the stress response in the host converges with the innate immune pathways
and influences the outcome of infection. However, the contribution of stress and the exact
mechanism(s) of its involvement in host defense remain to be elucidated. Using the model
bacterial pathogen Shigella flexneri, and comparing it with the closely related pathogen
Salmonella Typhimurium, this study investigated the role of host stress in the outcome of
infection.
Shigella infection is characterized by a pronounced pro-inflammatory response
that causes intense stress in host tissues, particularly the intestinal epithelium, which
constitutes the first barrier against Shigella colonization. In this study, inflammatory
stress was simulated in epithelial cells by inducing oxidative stress, hypoxia, and cytokine
stimulation. Shigella infection of epithelial cells exposed to such stresses was strongly
inhibited at the adhesion/binding stage. This resulted from the depletion of sphingolipidrafts
in the plasma membrane by the stress-activated sphingomyelinases. Interestingly,
Salmonella adhesion was not affected, by virtue of its flagellar motility, which allowed the
gathering of bacteria at remaining membrane rafts. Moreover, the intracellular replication
of Shigella lead to a similar sphingolipid-raft depletion in the membrane across adjacent
cells inhibiting extracellular bacterial invasion.
Additionally, this study shows that Shigella infection interferes with the host stress
granule-formation in response to stress. Interestingly, infected cells exhibited a nuclear
depletion of the global RNA-binding stress-granule associated proteins TIAR and TIA-1
and their accumulation in the cytoplasm.
Overall, this work investigated different aspects of the host stress-response in the
defense against bacterial infection. The findings shed light on the importance of the host
stress-pathways during infection, and improve the understanding of different strategies
in host-pathogen interaction.
This work summarizes the results of studies on three major aspects of platelet signaling and of the pathogenesis of immune thrombocytopenia. Therefore, this thesis is divided into three parts. i) Platelet activation and subsequent thrombus formation at sites of vascular injury is crucial for normal hemostasis, but it can also trigger myocardial infarction and stroke. The initial capture of flowing platelets to the injured vessel wall is mediated by the interaction of the glycoprotein (GP) Ib-V-IX complex with von Willebrand factor (vWF) immobilized on the exposed subendothelial extracellular matrix (ECM). The central importance of GPIb for platelet adhesion is well established, whereas GPV is generally considered to be of minor relevance for platelet physiology and thrombus formation. This study intended to clarify the relevance of this receptor during thrombus formation using Gp5-/- mice and mice with different double-deficiencies in GPV and in other platelet receptors. It was found that GPV and the collagen receptor integrin a2b1 have partially redundant functions in collagentriggered platelet aggregation. Further, it was revealed that GPV limits thrombus formation and impairs hemostasis in vivo. The data presented here demonstrate that the protective effect of GPVI-deficiency (another platelet collagen receptor) in arterial thrombosis and ischemic stroke depends on the expression of GPV. Moreover, it was demonstrated that lack of GPV restores the hemostatic function of mice lacking both GPVI and a2b1 or mice lacking GPVI and the C-type lectin receptor 2 (CLEC-2). Conclusively, GPV-depletion or blockade might have the potential to treat hemorrhagic disease states. ii) Platelets contain the two phospholipase (PL) D isoforms, PLD1 and PLD2, both of which presumably become activated upon platelet stimulation. However, the function of PLD in the process of platelet activation and aggregation has not been definitively explored. Thus, PLD-deficient mice were analyzed. Mice lacking PLD1 or PLD2 were viable, fertile and had normal platelet counts. PLD1 was found to be responsible for the inducible PLD-activity in platelets and to contribute to efficient integrin activation under static conditions. Moreover, flow adhesion experiments revealed that PLD1 is essential for efficient GPIb-mediated integrin activation. Consequently, Pld1-/- mice were protected from arterial thrombosis and ischemic brain infarction without affecting tail bleeding times. Hence, inhibition of PLD1 might be a novel approach for antithrombotic therapy. iii) Cellular activation of platelets or immune cells results in increased cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) levels. Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) via the STIM1-Orai1 axis is the main route of Ca2+ entry downstream of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activating motif (ITAM) receptor stimulation in mast cells and T cells. However, the requirement of Ca2+-mobilization in Fcg receptor (FcgR)-signaling and the relevance of STIM2 for T cell SOCE have been unclear. To address these questions, genetically modified mice lacking central molecules of the SOCE machinery were analyzed. Ca2+-measurements revealed that both STIM isoforms contribute to Ca2+-mobilization downstream of T cell receptor activation. Additionally, it was found that FcgR stimulation results in SOCE and is mediated by STIM1 and probably Orai1. Animal models of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) revealed that SOCE is essential for platelet clearance and that both STIM isoforms contribute to the pathology of ITP. Moreover, in this work it was also demonstrated that STIM1 and Orai1 are essential in IgG-mediated systemic anaphylaxis. STIM2 contributes to IgG-mediated, but not to IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. The data indicate that interference with SOCE might become a new strategy to prevent or treat IgG-dependent autoimmune diseases.
This work considered the frequency-modulated balanced steady-state free precession (fm-bSSFP) sequence as a tool to provide banding free bSSFP MR images. The sequence was implemented and successfully applied to suppress bandings in various in vitro and in vivo examples. In combination with a radial trajectory it is a promising alternative for standard bSSFP applications. First, two specialized applications were shown to establish the benefits of the acquisition strategy in itself. In real time cardiac imaging, it was shown that the continuous shift in frequency causes a movement of the bandings across the FOV. Thus, no anatomical region is constantly impaired, and a suitable timeframe can be found to examine all important structures. Furthermore, a combination of images with different artifact positions, similar to phase-cycled acquisitions is possible. In this way, fast, banding-free imaging of the moving heart was realized. Second, acquisitions with long TR were shown. While standard bSSFP suffers from increasing incidence of bandings with higher TR values, the frequency-modulated approach provided banding free images, regardless of the TR.
A huge disadvantage of fm-bSSFP, in combination with the radial trajectory, is the decrease in signal intensity. In this work a specialized reconstruction method, the multifrequency reconstruction for frequency-modulated bSSFP (Muffm), was established, which successfully compensated that phenomena. The application of Muffm to several anatomical sites, such as inner ear, legs and cardiac acquisitions, proofed the advantageous SNR of the reconstruction.
Furthermore, fm-bSSFP was applied to the clinically highly relevant task of water-fat separation. Former approaches of a phase-sensitive separation procedure in combination with standard bSSFP showed promising results but failed in cases of high inhomogeneity or high field strengths where banding artifacts become a major issue. The novel approach of using the fm-bSSFP acquisition strategy with the separation approach provided robust, reliable images of high quality. Again, losses in signal intensity could be regained by Muffm, as both approaches are completely compatible.
Opposed to conventional banding suppression techniques, like frequency-scouts or phase-cycling, all reconstruction methods established in this work rely on a single radial acquisition, with scan times similar to standard bSSFP scans. No prolonged measurement times occur and patient time in the scanner is kept as short as possible, improving patient comfort, susceptibility to motion or physiological noise and cost of one scan.
All in all, the frequency-modulated acquisition in combination with specializes reconstruction methods, leads to a completely new quality of images with short acquisition times.
Platelets, small anucleated blood cells responsible for hemostasis, interact at sights of injury with several exposed extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins through specific receptors. Ligand binding leads to activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Already megakaryocytes (MKs), the immediate precursor cells in bone marrow (BM), are in constant contact to these ECM proteins (ECMP). The interaction of ECMP with MKs is, in contrast to platelets, less well understood. It is therefore important to study how MKs interact with sinusoids via the underlying ECMP. This thesis addresses three major topics to elucidate these interactions and their role in platelet biogenesis.
First, we studied the topology of ECMP within BM and their impact on proplatelet formation (PPF) in vitro. By establishing a four-color immunofluorescence microscopy we localized collagens and other ECMP and determined their degree of contact towards vessels and megakaryocytes (MKs). In in vitro assays we could demonstrate that Col I mediates increased MK adhesion, but inhibits PPF by collagen receptor GPVI. By immunoblot analyses we identified that the signaling events underyling this inhibition are different from those in platelet activation at the Src family kinase level.
Second, we determined the degree of MK-ECM interaction in situ using confocal laser scanning microscopy of four-color IF-stained femora and spleen sections. In transgenic mouse models lacking either of the two major collagen receptors we could show that these mice have an impaired association of MKs to collagens in the BM, while the MK count in spleen increased threefold. This might contribute to the overall unaltered platelet counts in collagen receptor-deficient mice.
In a third approach, we studied how the equilibrium of ECMP within BM is altered after irradiation. Collagen type IV and laminin-α5 subunits were selectively degraded at the sinusoids, while the matrix degrading protease MMP9 was upregulated in MKs. Platelet numbers decreased and platelets became hyporesponsive towards agonists, especially those for GPVI activation.
Taken together, the results indicate that MK-ECM interaction differs substantially from the well-known platelet-ECM signaling. Future work should further elucidate how ECMP can be targeted to ameliorate the platelet production and function defects, especially in patients after BM irradiation.
Staphylococcus aureus ist ein grampositives Bakterium, welches häufig als kommensaler Besiedler auf der Nasen- und Rachenschleimhaut von Säugetieren vorkommt. Darüber hinaus besitzt dieser fakultativ pathogene Mikroorganismus die Fähigkeit schwer zu behandelnde Krankenhausinfektionen auszulösen. Aufgrund der weiten Verbreitung von Antibiotikaresistenzen und dem Mangel an effektiven Therapien, verursachen S. aureus Infektionen jährlich enorme Kosten für das Gesundheitssystem. S. aureus wird meist von der Nase zum primären Infektionsort übertragen, wodurch zunächst sehr häufig Wund- und Weichteilinfektionen hervor gerufen werden. Von diesem primären Infektionsort ausgehend, kann der Erreger tiefer liegende Gewebsschichten infizieren oder sich über den Blutstrom im gesamten Organismus ausbreiten. Das Spektrum an Krankheitsbildern reicht von leichten Abszessen der Haut bis zu schweren, lebensbedrohlichen Erkrankungen wie Pneumonien und akuter Sepsis.
Für die erfolgreiche Kolonisierung und Infektion des Wirtes exprimiert S. aureus eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Virulenzfaktoren. Die wohl größte Gruppe an Virulenzfaktoren umfasst die Proteine, die an der Immunevasion und der Umgehung von verschiedenen Abwehrstrategien des Immunsystems beteiligt sind. Das bisherige Wissen über die Interaktion von S. aureus mit dem Immunsystem des Wirtes und die zugrunde liegenden Pathogenitätsmechanismen ist bisher limitiert.
Um neue Erkenntnisse über die Interaktion von Wirt und Pathogen zu erlangen, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bislang unbekannte sekretierte und Oberflächen-assoziierte Proteine von S. aureus funktionell charakterisiert. Die Funktion der ausgewählten Proteine wurde in vitro hinsichtlich Einfluss auf Komponenten des Immunsystems, Adhäsion an Wirtsfaktoren und Invasion in eukaryotische Zellen untersucht.
Mit Hilfe der vorangegangenen in-vitro-Charakterisierung der putativen Virulenzfaktoren, konnte für die cytoplasmatische Adenylosuccinat-Synthase PurA eine neuartige Funktion identifiziert werden. PurA ist bekannt als essentielles Enzym der de novo Purin-Synthese. In dieser Arbeit wurde nun gezeigt, dass PurA zudem an der Immunevasion beteiligt ist. Durch die Bindung des humanen Faktor H des Komplementsystems schützt PurA S. aureus vor der lytischen Aktivität des Komplementsystems und verhindert die Opsonisierung des Pathogens. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurde PurA detailliert charakterisiert. In Bindungsstudien mit rekombinantem Faktor H und PurA wurde eine direkte Interaktion beider Proteine nachgewiesen, wobei Faktor H mit dem N-terminalen Bereich von PurA interagiert. Weiterhin konnte PurA durch Immunfluoreszenz und FACS-Analysen auf der Zelloberfläche nachgewiesen werden, wo es wahrscheinlich mit der Zellwand assoziiert vorliegt. Dort rekrutiert es Faktor H an die bakterielle Oberfläche und verhindert das Fortschreiten der Komplement-Kaskade und damit die Lyse des Pathogens. Aufgrund der Multifunktionalität zählt PurA somit zur Gruppe der Moonlighting Proteine.
Des Weiteren wurde die Rolle von PurA im Infektionsgeschehen in zwei unabhängigen Tiermodellen untersucht. In beiden Modellen wurde ein signifikant reduziertes Virulenzpotential der ΔpurA-Mutante beobachtet. Zukünftig soll geklärt werden, ob die verminderte Virulenz in der fehlenden Komplementevasion oder im Defekt in der Purin-Synthese begründet ist. Aufgrund der sehr starken Attenuation in allen untersuchten Infektionsmodellen sollte PurA als potentielles Target für eine Therapie von S. aureus Infektionen weiter charakterisiert werden. Im Ergebnis dieser Arbeit wurde demnach mit PurA ein neues Moonlighting Protein identifiziert, das als Inhibitor des Komplementsystems wesentlich zur Immunevasion von S. aureus beiträgt.
Für das bessere Verständnis der humoralen S. aureus-spezifischen Immunantwort, Unterschieden in der Antikörperantwort und der gebildeten Antikörperspezifitäten wurde weiterhin das während der Kolonisierung und Infektion gebildete S. aureus-spezifische Antikörperprofil untersucht. Dazu wurden Plasmen von humanen nasalen Trägern und Nicht-Trägern sowie murine Seren von infizierten Tieren untersucht. Insbesondere wurde das Pathogen-spezifische Antikörperprofil in unterschiedlichen Infektionsmodellen mit Hilfe eines Proteinarrays analysiert, der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit in einer Kooperation mit der Firma Alere Technologies (Jena, Deutschland) und universitären Forschergruppen der Universitäten Greifswald, Münster und Jena mitentwickelt wurde. Die Antikörperprofile von intramuskulär und intravenös infizierten Tieren resultierten in jeweils spezifischen Antikörperprofilen. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Art der Infektion und der gebildeten Antikörperspezifitäten hin. Wahrscheinlich beruht dies auf einer gewebespezifischen Genexpression als Anpassung an die individuellen Bedürfnisse im Wirtsorganismus. Das ausgebildete Antikörperprofil gibt somit einen Einblick in das Expressionsmuster von Virulenzfaktoren von S. aureus unter in vivo Bedingungen und trägt damit zum Verständnis der komplexen Interaktion von Pathogen und Wirt bei. Diese Untersuchungen ergänzen zudem die bisherigen Kenntnisse über die Anpassung der humoralen Immunantwort an eine asymptomatische Kolonisierung im Gegensatz zu einer akuten Infektion durch S. aureus. Darüber hinaus können die gewonnenen Ergebnisse für diagnostische Zwecke und zur Identifikation von neuen Zielstrukturen für eine Vakzin-Entwicklung genutzt werden.
Influence of interleukin-6-type cytokine oncostatin M on murine aortic vascular smooth muscle cells
(2018)
Oncostatin M (OSM) is a cytokine of the interleukin-6 family and released in the early
phase of inflammation by neutrophils, activated macrophages, dendritic cells, and T
lymphocytes. Its roles in physiology and disease are not entirely understood yet. It
has been shown recently that substantial amounts of OSM are found in atherosclerotic
plaques.
The first part of this thesis addresses the effects of OSM on vascular smooth muscle
cells (VSMCs). This cell type is known to contribute to atherogenesis and expresses
the type I and type II OSM receptor complexes. This study revealed that OSM is a
strong inducer of an array of genes which have recently been shown to play important
roles in atherosclerosis. Investigation of VSMCs isolated from OSMRbeta-deficient
(Osmr-/-) mice proved that the regulation of these target genes is entirely dependent
on the activation of the type II OSMR complex. In addition to OSM, other cytokines
expressed by T lymphocytes were found to contribute to plaque development. According
to earlier publications, the influence of IL-4, IL-13, and IL-17 on the progression of
plaques were discussed controversially. Nevertheless, for the regulation of investigated
atherosclerotic target genes and receptor complexes in VSMCs, they seemed to play a
minor role compared to OSM. Only the expression of the decoy receptor IL-13Ralpha2 - a
negative feedback mechanism for IL-13-mediated signalling - was strongly induced after
treatment with all mentioned cytokines, especially when VSMCs were primed with OSM
before stimulation.
The second part of this thesis focuses on the role of OSM during the progression of
atherosclerosis in vivo. Therefore, Ldlr-/-Osmr-/- mice were generated by crossing Ldlr-/-
mice - a typical mouse model for atherosclerosis - with Osmr-/- mice. These double-deficient
mice together with Ldlr-/-Osmr+/+ mice were set on cholesterol rich diet (Western
diet, WD) for 12 weeks before they were sacrificed. Determination of body and
organ weight, staining of aortas and aortic roots as well as gene expression profiling
strongly suggested that Ldlr-/-Osmr-/- mice are less susceptible for plaque development
and weight gain compared to Ldlr-/-Osmr+/+ mice. However, further experiments and
additional controls (C57Bl/6 and Osmr-/- mice) on WD are necessary to clarify the
underlying molecular mechanisms.
Taken together, the interleukin-6-type cytokine OSM is a strong inducer of an array of
target genes involved in de-differentiation and proliferation of VSMCs, a process known
to contribute substantially to atherogenesis. Further in vivo studies will help to clarify
the role of OSM in atherosclerosis.
Fluorescence microscopy has become one of the most important techniques for the imaging of biological cells and tissue, since the technique allows for selective labeling with fluorescent molecules and is highly suitable for low-light applications down to the single molecule regime. The methodological requirements are well-defined for studying membrane receptors within a highly localized nanometer-thin membrane. For example, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are an extensively studied class of membrane receptors that represent one of the most important pharmaceutical targets. Ligand binding and GPCR activation dynamics are suspected to take place at the millisecond scale and may even be far faster. Thus, techniques that are fast, selective, and live-cell compatible are required to monitor GPCR dynamics. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF-M) are methods of choice to monitor the dynamics of GPCRs selectively within the cell membrane.
Despite the remarkable success of these modalities, there are limitations. Most importantly, inhomogeneous illumination can induce imaging artifacts, rendering spectroscopic evaluation difficult. Background signal due to scattering processes or imperfect labeling can hamper the signal-to-noise, thus limiting image contrast and acquisition speed. Careful consideration of the internal physiology is required for FRET sensor design, so that ligand binding and cell compatibility are well-preserved despite the fluorescence labeling procedures. This limitation of labeling positions leads to very low signal changes in FRET-based GPCR analysis. In addition, microscopy of these systems becomes even more challenging in single molecule or low-light applications where the accuracy and temporal resolution may become dramatically low. Fluorescent labels should therefore be brighter, protected from photobleaching, and as small as possible to avoid interference with the binding kinetics. The development of new fluorescent molecules and labeling methods is an ongoing process. However, a complete characterization of new labels and sensors takes time. So far, the perfect dye system for GPCR studies has not been found, even though there is high demand.
Thus, this thesis explores and applies a different approach based on improved illumination schemes for TIRF-M as well as metal-coated coverslips to enhance fluorescence and FRET efficiency. First, it is demonstrated that a 360° illumination scheme reduces typical TIRF artifacts and produces a much more homogenously illuminated field of view. Second, membrane imaging and FRET spectroscopy are improved by metal coatings that are used to modulate the fluorescent properties of common fluorescent dyes. Computer simulation methods are used to understand the underlying photophysics and to design the coatings. Third, this thesis explores the operational regime and limitations of plasmonic approaches with high sectioning capabilities. The findings are summarized by three publications that are presented in the results section of this work. In addition, the theory of fluorescence and FRET is explained, with particular attention to its emission modulations in the vicinity of metal-dielectric layers. Details of the instrumentation, computer simulations, and cell culture are described in the method section. The work concludes with a discussion of the findings within the framework of recent technological developments as well as perspectives and suggestions for future approaches complete the presented work.
Solitary bees in seasonal environments have to align their life-cycles with favorable environmental conditions and resources. Therefore, a proper timing of their seasonal activity is highly fitness relevant. Most species in temperate environments use temperature as a trigger for the timing of their seasonal activity. Hence, global warming can disrupt mutualistic interactions between solitary bees and plants if increasing temperatures differently change the timing of interaction partners. The objective of this dissertation was to investigate the mechanisms of timing in spring-emerging solitary bees as well as the resulting fitness consequences if temporal mismatches with their host plants should occur. In my experiments, I focused on spring-emerging solitary bees of the genus Osmia and thereby mainly on O. cornuta and O. bicornis (in one study which is presented in Chapter IV, I additionally investigated a third species: O. brevicornis).
Chapter II presents a study in which I investigated different triggers solitary bees are using to time their emergence in spring. In a climate chamber experiment I investigated the relationship between overwintering temperature, body size, body weight and emergence date. In addition, I developed a simple mechanistic model that allowed me to unite my different observations in a consistent framework. In combination with the empirical data, the model strongly suggests that solitary bees follow a strategic approach and emerge at a date that is most profitable for their individual fitness expectations. I have shown that this date is on the one hand temperature dependent as warmer overwintering temperatures increase the weight loss of bees during hibernation, which then advances their optimal emergence date to an earlier time point (due to an earlier benefit from the emergence event). On the other hand I have also shown that the optimal emergence date depends on the individual body size (or body weight) as bees adjust their emergence date accordingly. My data show that it is not enough to solely investigate temperature effects on the timing of bee emergence, but that we should also consider individual body conditions of solitary bees to understand the timing of bee emergence.
In Chapter III, I present a study in which I investigated how exactly temperature determines the emergence date of solitary bees. Therefore, I tested several variants degree-day models to relate temperature time series to emergence data. The basic functioning of such degree-day models is that bees are said to finally emerge when a critical amount of degree-days is accumulated. I showed that bees accumulate degree-days only above a critical temperature value (~4°C in O. cornuta and ~7°C in O. bicornis) and only after the exceedance of a critical calendar date (~10th of March in O. cornuta and ~28th of March in O. bicornis). Such a critical calendar date, before which degree-days are not accumulated irrespective of the actual temperature, is in general less commonly used and, so far, it has only been included twice in a phenology model predicting bee emergence. Furthermore, I used this model to retrospectively predict the emergence dates of bees by applying the model to long-term temperature data which have been recorded by the regional climate station in Würzburg. By doing so, the model estimated that over the last 63 years, bees emerged approximately 4 days earlier.
In Chapter IV, I present a study in which I investigated how temporal mismatches in bee-plant interactions affect the fitness of solitary bees. Therefore, I performed an experiment with large flight cages serving as mesocosms. Inside these mesocosms, I manipulated the supply of blossoms to synchronize or desynchronize bee-plant interactions. In sum, I showed that even short temporal mismatches of three and six days in bee-plant interactions (with solitary bee emergence before flower occurrence) can cause severe fitness losses in solitary bees. Nonetheless, I detected different strategies by solitary bees to counteract impacts on their fitness after temporal mismatches. However, since these strategies may result in secondary fitness costs by a changed sex ratio or increased parasitism, I concluded that compensation strategies do not fully mitigate fitness losses of bees after short temporal mismatches with their food plants. In the event of further climate warming, fitness losses after temporal mismatches may not only exacerbate bee declines but may also reduce pollination services for later-flowering species and affect populations of animal-pollinated plants.
In conclusion, I showed that spring-emerging solitary bees are susceptible to climate change as in response to warmer temperatures bees advance their phenology and show a decreased fitness state. As spring-emerging solitary bees not only consider overwintering temperature but also their individual body condition for adjusting emergence dates, this may explain differing responses to climate warming within and among bee populations which may also have consequences for bee-plant interactions and the persistence of bee populations under further climate warming. If in response to climate warming plants do not shift their phenologies according to the bees, bees may experience temporal mismatches with their host plants. As bees failed to show a single compensation strategy that was entirely successful in mitigating fitness consequences after temporal mismatches with their food plants, the resulting fitness consequences for spring-emerging solitary bees would be severe. Furthermore, I showed that spring-emerging solitary bees use a critical calendar date before which they generally do not commence the summation of degree-days irrespective of the actual temperature. I therefore suggest that further studies should also include the parameter of a critical calendar date into degree-day model predictions to increase the accuracy of model predictions for emergence dates in solitary bees. Although our retrospective prediction about the advance in bee emergence corresponds to the results of several studies on phenological trends of different plant species, we suggest that more research has to be done to assess the impacts of climate warming on the synchronization in bee-plant interactions more accurately.
Als Hämostase bezeichnet man die Gesamtheit der Reaktionen, die zu einer effektiven Blutgerinnung beitragen. Sie lässt sich in die primäre (thrombozytäre) Hämostase, in die sekundäre (plasmatische) Hämostase und in das Fibrinolysesystem einteilen. Thrombozyten, oder auch Plättchen genannt, spielen hierbei eine entscheidende Rolle. Sie binden an die durch eine Verletzung einer Blutgefäßwand freigelegten Faktoren, werden so aktiviert und aggregieren mit weiteren Thrombozyten, wodurch ein Thrombus entsteht, der die Verletzung verschließt. Zudem besitzen Thrombozyten Immunokompetenz und können mit anderen Immunzellen interagieren, über Rezeptoren Pathogene erkennen und sie direkt angreifen. Einer dieser Pathogene ist der opportunistische Pilz Aspergillus fumigatus. Dieser bildet im Verlauf seines Lebenszyklus 2,5 -3 µm kleine Konidien aus, die mit dem Wind verbreitet werden und bis tief in die Alveolen der menschlichen Lunge eingeatmet werden können. Während diese Konidien im gesunden Menschen durch das Immunsystem und andere Abwehrmechanismen eliminiert werden, können sie im immunsupprimierten Patienten, z. B. bei Patienten nach einer hämatopoietischen Stammzelltransplantation, auskeimen und verschiedene Krankheiten, sogenannte Aspergillosen, auslösen mit der Invasiven Aspergillose (IA) als schwerwiegendste Form. Diese ist assoziiert mit Gewebezerstörungen, Blutungen und Thrombenbildung am Ort der Infektion. Diese Komplikationen könnten auf einer überhöhten Immunantwort des Wirtes, auf dem mechanischen Eindringen des Pilzes in das Gewebe und die Blutgefäße oder auf einer Änderung der lokalen Hämostase durch sezernierte hydrolytische Enzyme (Proteasen) oder Sekundärmetabolite von A. fumigatus beruhen.
Um diese Änderung der Hämostase im Verlauf einer IA zu analysieren, wurde der Einfluss von Morphologien (Konidien, geschwollene Konidien, Keimschläuche und Hyphen), deren Überstände, sowie von proteolytisch aktivem Überstand und von verschiedenen Sekundärmetaboliten von A. fumigatus auf die sekundäre Hämostase und die Aggregation und Aktivität von humanen Thrombozyten untersucht. Bei der Analyse der sekundären Hämostase konnte für keinen dieser eingesetzten Effektoren ein Einfluss festgestellt werden. Bei der Analyse der primären Hämostase und dem Einsatz von Morphologien und ihrer Überstände konnte für Hyphen und ihren ankonzentrierten Überstand eine aggregationssteigernde Wirkung auf Thrombozyten beobachtet werden, die möglicherweise auf Bestandteile der Zellwand von A. fumigatus, wie z. B. β-Galactosaminogalactan (GAG) zurückzuführen ist. Proteolytisch aktiver Überstand führte zu einer Aktivierung der Thrombozyten, die zum Teil auf die PrtT-abhängige proteolytische Spaltung und damit die Aktivierung der Thrombinrezeptoren PAR1 und/oder PAR4 auf der Thrombozytenoberfläche, zum Teil aber auch auf GAG zurückzuführen sein kann. Von den hier verwendeten Mykotoxinen Gliotoxin, Fumagillin, Citrinin, Verruculogen und Deoxynivalenol konnte für Gliotoxin ein negativer Einfluss auf die Thrombozytenaktivität nachgewiesen werden. Dieses Toxin inhibierte die Aggregation und die Aktivität der Thrombozyten, möglicherweise durch die Bildung von Disulfid-Brückenbindungen oder auch durch die Bildung von reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies. Zudem wurde im Verlauf dieser Arbeit eine direkte Interaktion von Gliotoxin mit den ADP-Rezeptoren P2Y1 und P2Y12 sowie mit dem Integrin αIIbβ3 postuliert, die so zwar nicht bestätigt, aber auch nicht vollständig wiederlegt werden konnte.
Die hier dargestellten Ergebnisse zeigen deutlich zwei Wirkungen von A. fumigatus auf humane Thrombozyten: zum einen eine Aktivierung oder auch verstärkte Aggregation durch sezernierte Proteasen oder Zellwandbestandteile, zum anderen eine Hemmung durch Gliotoxin, was die bei einer IA beobachtete Thrombenbildung sowie die Blutungen erklären kann. Die Interaktion der aktivierten Thrombozyten mit den Zellen des Immunsystems sowie die zytotoxischen Eigenschaften von Gliotoxin könnten zudem für die beobachtete Gewebezerstörung verantwortlich sein. Dennoch ist weitere Forschung in diesem Gebiet unabdingbar, um die pathophysiologische Änderung der lokalen Hämostase durch A. fumigatus und seine Wirkung auf humane Thrombozyten besser zu verstehen und so eine schnellere Erkennung und Behandlung von Aspergillosen zu ermöglichen.
Panic Disorder (PD) is characterized by unexpected, recurrent panic attacks, which are not restricted to certain situations, medication or stimuli. Like other anxiety disorders, PD is a multifactorial disorder and develops through the interaction of genetic and environmental risk factors. Despite an estimated heritability of up to 48%, no distinct genetic mechanism could be revealed yet. A dysregulation of the stress response has been shown in patients with PD and several studies could find an association of components of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system with PD. The corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) is the main receptor of CRF in the brain and thus a crucial regulator of cerebral CRF signaling. Recent genetic studies found an association of certain CRHR1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with PD and other anxiety disorders. Among the associated CRHR1 SNPs, rs17689918 showed further evidence in a multilevel study regulating CRHR1 gene expression in panic-relevant brain regions and affecting brain activation in fMRI experiments, as well as flight behavior in a behavioral avoidance task (Weber et al, 2015). Here, we aimed to investigate the underlying neurogenetic and neurobiological mechanisms, by which the rs17689918 risk allele affects CRHR1 gene expression and receptor function, and its putative function in the pathophysiology of PD.
Due to its intronic position and the predicted change of splicing regulatory elements by the risk allele of rs17689918, the expression of alternative spliced CRHR1 isoforms was investigated using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) in a human post-mortem brain tissue sample. Of eight known CRHR1 isoforms, expression of three CRHR1 isoforms and the CRHR1-IT1-CRHR1 readthrough transcript variant 5 – all expressing the seven transmembrane domains needed for functional receptors – was analyzed. Subsequently, electrophysiological assays were developed to measure the receptor activity of differentially expressed CRHR1 isoforms via co-expressed Kir2.3 potassium channels in vitro. In a second approach, possible epigenetic regulation of CRHR1 expression by rs17689918 was investigated by analyses of DNA methylation patterns of a CpG Island within the CRHR1 promoter region, firstly in a case-control sample for PD and secondly in a healthy control sample, separated in high and low anxious individuals. To investigate a possible gene × epigene × environment interaction, the impact of early life stress by means of childhood trauma was evaluated via the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ). Finally, consequences of differential DNA methylation of the CRHR1 promoter region on gene expression were investigated by luciferase-based reporter gene assays in vitro.
The expression of CRHR1β was significantly decreased in amygdalae and midbrains of risk allele carriers. The expression of CRHR1-IT1-CRHR1 readthrough transcript variant 5 was significantly increased in forebrains and midbrains of risk allele carriers. All other analyzed isoforms showed no differences in expression between non-risk and risk allele carriers of rs17689918. The electrophysiological recordings of membrane potential showed an activation of Kir2.3 channels by CRHR1β in contrast to an inconsistent mix of activation and inhibition of Kir2.3 by the main isoform CRHR1α. DNA methylation of the CRHR1 promoter region was significantly reduced in panic disorder patients, as well as in high anxious individuals of an independent healthy control sample, but no direct relation to the rs17689918 risk allele could be discerned. However, the combination of carrying the risk allele, low DNA methylation and high CTQ scores lead to increased sum scores in the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) in healthy individuals. Functional analyses revealed an activation of gene expression by decreased DNA methylation of the promoter region in vitro.
Our results revealed that rs17689918 regulates CRHR1 function by increasing the expression of alternative transcript variants with altered function. Our analyses of DNA methylation revealed decreased methylation as a new risk factor for panic disorder and high anxious behavior, which in combination with other risk factors like childhood trauma and the rs17689918 risk allele might further increase cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms. This supports the role of CRHR1 as a plasticity gene of anxiety behavior, i.e. a gene that is highly regulated by epigenetic or post-transcriptional mechanisms in response to environmental stressors. By its role in CRF signaling, the dysregulation of CRHR1 might extensively affect the stress response and contribute to the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders like PD. The understanding of the underlying mechanisms, especially the genetic and epigenetic regulation, would however enhance CRHR1 as a target of improved future therapeutics for PD and other anxiety disorders.
LOX-catalyzed collagen stabilization is a proximal cause for intrinsic resistance to chemotherapy
(2018)
The potential of altering the tumor ECM to improve drug response remains fairly unexplored. To identify targets for modification of the ECM aiming to improve drug response and overcome resistance, we analyzed expression data sets from pre-treatment patient cohorts. Cross-evaluation identified a subset of chemoresistant tumors characterized by increased expression of collagens and collagen-stabilizing enzymes. We demonstrate that strong collagen expression and stabilization sets off a vicious circle of self-propagating hypoxia, malignant signaling, and aberrant angiogenesis that can be broken by an appropriate auxiliary intervention: Interfering with collagen stabilization by inhibition of lysyl oxidases significantly enhanced response to chemotherapy in various tumor models, even in metastatic disease. Inhibition of collagen stabilization by itself can reduce or enhance tumor growth depending on the tumor type. The mechanistical basis for this behavior is the dependence of the individual tumor on nutritional supply on one hand and on high tissue stiffness for FAK signaling on the other.
The present study was conducted on the rOCT1, a member of SLC22 family. Structurally, it consists of 12 membrane spanning α-helices with both N- and C-termini intracellular. Studies done so far, through tracer uptake and inhibition, reconstitution of rOCT1 in nanodiscs and proteoliposomes and voltage-clamp fluorometry, have identified the main amino acids in the cleft of rOCT1 that interact in a critical manner with the substrates/inhibitors either directly or indirectly. Homology modeling studies have also supported these observations. In the present study we aimed at measuring the binding of substrates MPP+ and TEA+ to rOCT1 at 0oC in order to establish the amino acids in the cleft region that interact with the substrate when the transporter is frozen in the outward-open conformation. Previously identified crucial amino acids (Asp475, Phe160, Leu447, Arg440, Trp218 and Tyr222) were selected for the study. rOCT1 wild-type and its mutants were stably expressed in HEK293 cells and these cells were used for the binding measurements with the radioactive substrate (MPP+ or TEA+) at 0°C in Mg-Ca-PBS buffer as described in “Materials and Methods” section in detail. rOCT1 wild-type revealed for MPP+-binding a KD which was not significantly different from the corresponding Km value. Also, after addition of 10 nM non-radioactive MPP+, an initial increase of about 20% in bound MPP+ was observed. The results indicate that the Km for transport is dependent on the binding of MPP+ to the outward-open conformation and hints at the possibility of allosteric interaction between the binding sites. Mutations at position Trp218, Phe160 and Asp475 resulted in a change in the KD value. Trp218 mutations also showed an allosteric increase similar to the rOCT1 wild-type. This study suggests that these amino acids are located at a critical position in the outward-open conformation for MPP+ transport. TEA+-binding could not be observed in rOCT1 wild-type, indicating that the binding site is perhaps inaccessible for TEA+ in frozen outward-open state. The mutants D475E, F160A, L447F, R440K and Y222F showed a very low affinity binding with a very high KD value as compared to the corresponding Km values indicating that the transporter might have different affinities for extra-cellular binding alone and for the complete transport process especially if temperature is the limiting factor. Substrate inhibition studies done using both MPP+ and TEA+ have confirmed the existence of overlapping binding sites for these two ligands. This study has confirmed the direct interaction of Trp218, Phe160, Asp475 with MPP+ and Phe160, Asp475, Leu447, Arg440 and Tyr222 with TEA+ in the outward-open conformation.
Anxiety and depressive disorders result from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and are common mutual comorbidities. On the level of cellular signaling, regulator of G protein signaling 2 (Rgs2) has been implicated in human and rodent anxiety as well as rodent depression. Rgs2 negatively regulates G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling by acting as a GTPase accelerating protein towards the Gα subunit.
The present study investigates, whether mice with a homozygous Rgs2 deletion (Rgs2-/-) show behavioral alterations as well as an increased susceptibility to stressful life events related to human anxiety and depressive disorders and tries to elucidate molecular underlying’s of these changes.
To this end, Rgs2-/- mice were characterized in an aversive-associative learning paradigm to evaluate learned fear as a model for the etiology of human anxiety disorders. Spatial learning and reward motivated spatial learning were evaluated to control for learning in non-aversive paradigms. Rgs2 deletion enhanced learning in all three paradigms, rendering increased learning upon deletion of Rgs2 not specific for aversive learning. These data support reports indicating increased long-term potentiation in Rgs2-/- mice and may predict treatment response to conditioning based behavior therapy in patients with polymorphisms associated with reduced RGS2 expression. Previous reports of increased innate anxiety were corroborated in three tests based on the approach-avoidance conflict. Interestingly, Rgs2-/- mice showed novelty-induced hypo-locomotion suggesting neophobia, which may translate to the clinical picture of agoraphobia in humans and reduced RGS2 expression in humans was associated with a higher incidence of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Depression-like behavior was more distinctive in female Rgs2-/- mice. Stress resilience, tested in an acute and a chronic stress paradigm, was also more distinctive in female Rgs2-/- mice, suggesting Rgs2 to contribute to sex specific effects of anxiety disorders and depression.
Rgs2 deletion was associated with GPCR expression changes of the adrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic and neuropeptide Y systems in the brain and heart as well as reduced monoaminergic neurotransmitter levels. Furthermore, the expression of two stress-related microRNAs was increased upon Rgs2 deletion. The aversive-associative learning paradigm induced a dynamic Rgs2 expression change. The observed molecular changes may contribute to the anxious and depressed phenotype as well as promote altered stress reactivity, while reflecting an alter basal stress level and a disrupted sympathetic tone. Dynamic Rgs2 expression may mediate changes in GPCR signaling duration during memory formation.
Taken together, Rgs2 deletion promotes increased anxiety-like and depression-like behavior, altered stress reactivity as well as increased cognitive function.