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Wilms' tumor primary cells display potent immunoregulatory properties on NK cells and macrophages
(2021)
The immune response plays a crucial defensive role in cancer growth and metastasis and is a promising target in different tumors. The role of the immune system in Wilm’s Tumor (WT), a common pediatric renal malignancy, is still to be explored. The characterization of the immune environment in WT could allow the identification of new therapeutic strategies for targeting possible inhibitory mechanisms and/or lowering toxicity of the current treatments. In this study, we stabilized four WT primary cultures expressing either a blastematous (CD56\(^+\)/CD133\(^−\)) or an epithelial (CD56\(^−\)/CD133\(^+\)) phenotype and investigated their interactions with innate immune cells, namely NK cells and monocytes. We show that cytokine-activated NK cells efficiently kill WT cells. However, after co-culture with WT primary cells, NK cells displayed an impaired cytotoxic activity, decreased production of IFNγ and expression of CD107a, DNAM-1 and NKp30. Analysis of the effects of the interaction between WT cells and monocytes revealed their polarization towards alternatively activated macrophages (M2) that, in turn, further impaired NK cell functions. In conclusion, we show that both WT blastematous and epithelial components may contribute directly and indirectly to a tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment that is likely to play a role in tumor progression.
Der permanente Hypoparathyreoidismus ist charakterisiert durch eine unzureichende Produktion des Peptidhormons Parathormon. Die häufigste Ursache für einen Hypoparathyreoidismus sind Operationen im Halsbereich. Nach Schätzungen des Statistischen Bundesamtes kommen allein in Deutschland jährlich 500-4000 Neuerkrankungen hinzu. Die aus Kalzium und Vitamin D-Analoga bestehende Standardtherapie kann den Kalziumverlust durch die Niere nicht verhindern. Langfristig führt diese chronische Hyperkalzurie zur Niereninsuffizienz. Die bei anderen Hormonmangel-Erkrankungen wie Nebenniereninsuffizienz, Hypothyreose und Diabetes mellitus sehr erfolgreiche Hormonsubstitution befindet sich bei der Behandlung des Hypoparathyreoidismus noch im experimentellen Stadium. Einen Sonderfall der Hormonsubstitution stellt die Transplantation dar. Durch die Übertragung von Nebenschilddrüsengewebe wird die tagesrhythmische Parathormonsekretion wiederhergestellt. Im Gegensatz zur Autotransplantation, bei der nach Schilddrüsenoperationen Teile der eigenen Nebenschilddrüse vom Halsbereich in die Unterarmmuskulatur verlegt werden, kommt es bei der Allotransplantation (hier sind Transplantat und Empfänger genetisch nicht identisch) zur gefürchteten Abstoßung. Nur die dauerhafte Einnahme nebenwirkungsreicher immunsuppressiver Medikamente kann diese Immunantwort unterdrücken. Aus diesem Grund werden allogene Nebenschilddrüsentransplantationen in der Klinik auch nur in solchen Fällen durchgeführt, in denen der hypoparathyreoide Patient bereits transplantiert ist und daher ohnehin Immunsuppressiva erhält. Zur Immunologie der Abstoßung allogener Nebenschilddrüsentransplantate liegen kaum experimentelle Daten vor. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde insbesondere das Zusammenspiel von T-Lymphozyten und Makrophagen bei der Zerstörung von Nebenschilddrüsentransplantaten untersucht. Es scheint, dass die das Transplantat infiltrierenden Makrophagen neben ihrer Fähigkeit zur Antigenpräsentation auch als Effektorzellen an der Transplantatzerstörung beteiligt sind und dass dies durch aktivierte T-Lymphozyten gesteuert wird. In syngenen und allogenen Nebenschilddrüsentransplantaten, d.h. Transplantate, die zum Empfänger genetisch identisch bzw. nicht-identisch sind, wurden aktivierte Makrophagen nachgewiesen, die MHC-Klasse-II-Moleküle und kostimulatorische Moleküle auf der Zelloberfläche exprimieren. Zwischen Tag 3 und Tag 11 nach Transplantation befanden sich aktivierte T-Lymphozyten in den allogenen Transplantaten und zwischen Tag 4 und Tag 15 waren iNOS-positive Makrophagen als mögliche Effektorzellen nachzuweisen. Im Gegensatz dazu wurden in syngenen Nebenschilddrüsentransplantaten zwar aktivierte Makrophagen, aber keine aktivierten T-Lymphozyten nachgewiesen. Die aktivierten Makrophagen waren zudem nicht iNOS-positiv. Bei der Transplantatabstoßung handelt es sich um eine von T-Lymphozyten vermittelte Immunantwort. Um dies auch am Modell der heterotopen Nebenschilddrüsentransplantation zu untersuchen – hierzu werden die Nebenschilddrüsentransplantate unter die Nierenkapsel gelegt – wurden hypokalzämische Tiere mit dem für T-Lymphozyten immunogenen Peptid P1 sieben Tage vor Transplantation immunisiert. Wie erwartet, verkürzte sich die Transplantatfunktionszeit in diesen sensibilisierten Tieren von 15.8±1.8 Tagen auf 9.4±0.9 Tage. Das Muster der Zellinfiltration war ähnlich dem nicht-sensibilisierter Tiere. Wieder kam es kurz nach der Präsenz aktivierter T-Lymphozyten zum Auftreten iNOS-positiver Makrophagen, die bis zur vollständigen Zerstörung in den allogenen Nebenschilddrüsentransplantaten blieben. Aufgrund der Daten dieser Arbeit wird vermutet, dass die aktivierten Makrophagen bestimmte Signale von den aktivierten T-Lymphozyten erhalten, woraufhin diese das zur Produktion des zellschädigenden Stickstoffmonoxids (NO) notwendige Enzym iNOS exprimieren. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf eine sehr eng abgestimmte Interaktion zwischen Makrophagen und T-Lymphozyten im Transplantat hin, die bisher so nicht beschrieben ist. Nebenschilddrüsentransplantate stellen somit ein attraktives Modell zur detaillierten Analyse der Immunologie der Transplantatabstoßung dar. Auch ist dieses Modell geeignet, insbesondere solche therapeutischen Strategien zu testen, die die Interaktion zwischen Makrophagen und T-Lymphozyten gezielt stören.
Die Infektion mit MV Wildtypvirus führt zu einer starken Immunsuppression und Sekundärinfektionen, die bei der Immunisierung mit einem attenuierten Vakzinestamm nicht auftreten. In vitro Studien zeigen, dass sowohl MV Wildtyp- als auch Impfstamminfizierte Zellen die Mitogen-induzierte Proliferation von humanen Blutlymphozyten inhibieren. Zur Bestätigung dieser Befunde im Baumwollrattenmodell wurde gezeigt, dass in vitro MV-infizierte Zellen die Proliferation der naiven Milzzellen hemmen und keine Unterschiede zwischen Wildtypen und Impfstämmen bestehen. Im Gegensatz dazu wurden nach intranasaler Infektion von Baumwollratten Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Proliferationsinhibition, Virusreplikation und Ausbreitung zwischen Wildtypvirus WTF und Impfstamm Edm gefunden. Nach intranasaler Infektion mit 105 TCID50 WTF war am Tag 4 die Proliferation bis zu 40% inhibiert. Bis zu 20 Tagen nach Infektion mit WTF wurde eine Proliferationsinhibition gemessen und das Virus in den drainierenden Lymphknoten bis Tag 4 nachgewiesen. Die intranasale Infektion mit Dosen von 103 TCID50 WTF bzw. mit 2-4x106 TCID50 Edm konnten im gleichem Maße die T-Zell- Proliferation hemmen. Somit war eine 1000fach niedrigere Dosis an WTF ausreichend, die gleiche hemmende Wirkung zu erzielen. Der gleiche Effekt wurde bei weiteren Wildtypstämmen (Bilthoven, ICB) und Impfstämmen gefunden. Eine Ursache für den unterschiedlich immunsuppressiven Effekt zwischen Wildtypen und Impfstämmen könnte die unterschiedliche Rezeptornutzung sein. Wildtypviren benutzen CD150 als Rezeptor und Impfstämme sowohl CD150 als auch CD46. Die Impfstämme wurden ursprünglich von Edm Wildtyp durch Passagierung auf Fibroblasten-Zellinien attenuiert und adaptierten an die CD46-Rezeptornutzung. Durch die dabei erfolgte Adaptation an CD46 wurde der Virus attenuiert. Dieses Phänomen konnte auch nach Passagierung eines Wildtypvirus auf verschiedenen Zelllinien gezeigt werden. Der auf lymphoiden Zellen passagierte Wildtyp WTFb und der auf Fibroblasten-Zellen WTFv passagierte haben unterschiedliches immunsuppressives Potential. Interessanterweise zeigte Edm-Wildtyp nach 9 Passagen auf Fibroblasten- Zellinien einen attenuierten Phänotyp im Baumwollrattenmodell. Allerdings revertierte dieser Virus bereits nach 3 Passagen in der Baumwollratte zu einem immunsuppressiven, sich ausbreitenden Virus. Die Untersuchung der rekombinanten Viren Edm (WTF H), Edm (WTF F) und Edm (WTF H+F) zeigte, dass Impfstämme, welche das Oberflächenprotein H von WTF anstelle des H-Proteins von Edm tragen, proliferationshemmend sind und sich im Organismus ausbreiten. Das F-Protein von Edm oder WTF hatte keinen Einfluß auf Immunsuppression und Virusausbreitung, Die Rückmutation in dem WTF H-Protein an der Aminosäure-Position 481 von Aspargin zu Tyrosin (N481Y) veränderte die Rezeptornutzung von CD46 auf CD150 und den Phänotyp von einem immunsuppressiven, sich ausbreitenden Virus zu einem nichtimmunsuppressiven, nicht-ausbreitenden Virus. Da die Aminosäureposition 481 einen starken Einfluß auf die Benutzung von CD46 oder CD150 ausübt, scheint somit das HProtein von WTF die immunsuppressive Wirkung und Virusausbreitung maßgeblich zu beeinflussen. Wie beim Menschen konnten in der Baumwollratte MV-infizierte Makrophagen nachgewiesen werden. Durch die Infektion mit einem GFP-MV wurde die Virusreplikation nachgewiesen, das Virus wurde aus Makrophagen rückisoliert und durch Kokultivierung mit Indikatorzellen die Ausprägung des zytopathischen Effektes fluoreszenzmikroskopisch beobachtet. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigten Unterschiede zwischen WTF und Edm-infizierten Makrophagen hinsichtlich der Proliferationsinhibition von Milzzellen. Der direkte Kontakt von Wildtyp WTFinfizierten Makrophagen hemmte die T-Zell-Proliferation. Dagegen wurde durch Edminfizierte Makrophagen keine T-Zell-Proliferationinhibition ausgelöst. Erklären läßt sich das möglicherweise mit dem unterschiedlichen Sekretionsprofil verschiedener Interleukine von WTF und Edm-infizierten Makrophagen, da bei WTF-infizierten Makrophagen eine Unterdrückung der Produktion von IL-12 gefunden wurde. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die im Menschen beobachteten Unterschiede hinsichtlich Virusausbreitung und Immunsuppression zwischen Wildtypenund Impfstämmen mit den Befunden in der Baumwollratte übereinstimmen. Außerdem konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Interaktion von MV H-Protein und den Rezeptoren mit der Immunsuppression und Virusausbreitung korreliert. Die Unterdrückung der Sekretion von IL-12 in Makrophagen aus der Baumwollratte könnte die Hypothese unterstützen, dass die Immunsuppression während der MV-Infektion durch eine fehlgeleitete Th2-Antwort begünstig wird.
Background
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor in adults. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) have been shown to promote malignant growth and to correlate with poor prognosis. [1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-NN′,N″,N′″-tetraacetic acid]-d-Phe1,Tyr3-octreotate (DOTATATE) labeled with Gallium-68 selectively binds to somatostatin receptor 2A (SSTR2A) which is specifically expressed and up-regulated in activated macrophages. On the other hand, the role of SSTR2A expression on the cell surface of glioma cells has not been fully elucidated yet. The aim of this study was to non-invasively assess SSTR2A expression of both glioma cells as well as macrophages in GBM.
Methods
15 samples of patient-derived GBM were stained immunohistochemically for macrophage infiltration (CD68), proliferative activity (Ki67) as well as expression of SSTR2A. Anti-CD45 staining was performed to distinguish between resident microglia and tumor-infiltrating macrophages. In a subcohort, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging using \(^{68}Ga-DOTATATE\) was performed and the semiquantitatively evaluated tracer uptake was compared to the results of immunohistochemistry.
Results
The amount of microglia/macrophages ranged from <10% to >50% in the tumor samples with the vast majority being resident microglial cells. A strong SSTR2A immunostaining was observed in endothelial cells of proliferating vessels, in neurons and neuropile. Only faint immunostaining was identified on isolated microglial and tumor cells. Somatostatin receptor imaging revealed areas of increased tracer accumulation in every patient. However, retention of the tracer did not correlate with immunohistochemical staining patterns.
Conclusion
SSTR2A seems not to be overexpressed in GBM samples tested, neither on the cell surface of resident microglia or infiltrating macrophages, nor on the surface of tumor cells. These data suggest that somatostatin receptor directed imaging and treatment strategies are less promising in GBM.
THP-1-Zellen und differenzierte Makrophagen weisen TRB3 in geringer Menge auf. Bei einer Stimulation der Zellen mit Thapsigargin zeigt sich eine dosisabhängige Zunahme von TRB3, CHOP und BAX in beiden Zelttypen, wobei die Effekte bei Makrophagen stärker ausgeprägt waren. Während Thapsigargin die TRB3- Konzentration in THP-1-Zellen und differenzierte Makrophagen auch unter Knockdownbedingungen erhöhte, unterschied sich das Ausmaß des Knockdowneffektes dabei nicht wesentlich von dem bei unbehandelten, nicht-Thapsigargin stimulierten Zellen. Es scheint, dass die CHOP- und BAX- Regulation nicht allein TRB3-abhängig ist, da ein signifikanter Knickdown von TRB3 nur mit einer tendenziellen Verminderung von BAX und einer leichten, ebenfalls nicht-signifikanten Erhöhung von CHOP einherging. Unter Behandlung mit Thapsigargin zeigte sich bei beiden Zelttypen eine dosisabhängige Reduktion der Cholesterinaufnahme, wobei diese TRB3- unabhängig erscheint, zumal sich bei TRB3-Knockdown keine signifikante Änderung in der Cholesterinaufnahme erkennen ließ.
Supplement-free induction of cellular differentiation and polarization solely through the topography of materials is an auspicious strategy but has so far significantly lagged behind the efficiency and intensity of media-supplementation-based protocols. Consistent with the idea that 3D structural motifs in the extracellular matrix possess immunomodulatory capacity as part of the natural healing process, it is found in this study that human-monocyte-derived macrophages show a strong M2a-like prohealing polarization when cultured on type I rat-tail collagen fibers but not on collagen I films. Therefore, it is hypothesized that highly aligned nanofibrils also of synthetic polymers, if packed into larger bundles in 3D topographical biomimetic similarity to native collagen I, would induce a localized macrophage polarization. For the automated fabrication of such bundles in a 3D printing manner, the strategy of “melt electrofibrillation” is pioneered by the integration of flow-directed polymer phase separation into melt electrowriting and subsequent selective dissolution of the matrix polymer postprocessing. This process yields nanofiber bundles with a remarkable structural similarity to native collagen I fibers, particularly for medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone). These biomimetic fibrillar structures indeed induce a pronounced elongation of human-monocyte-derived macrophages and unprecedentedly trigger their M2-like polarization similar in efficacy as interleukin-4 treatment.
Current preclinical models used to evaluate novel therapies for improved healing include both in vitro and in vivo methods. However, ethical concerns related to the use of animals as well as the poor physiological translation between animal and human skin wound healing designate in vitro models as a highly relevant and promising platforms for healing investigation. While current in vitro 3D skin models recapitulate a mature tissue with healing properties, they still represent a simplification of the in vivo conditions, where for example the inflammatory response originating after wound formation involves the contribution of immune cells. Macrophages are among the main contributors to the inflammatory response and regulate its course thanks to their plasticity. Therefore, their implementation into in vitro skin could greatly increase the physiological relevance of the models. As no full-thickness immunocompetent skin model containing macrophages has been reported so far, the parameters necessary for a successful triple co-culture of fibroblasts, keratinocytes and macrophages were here investigated. At first, cell source and culture timed but also an implementation strategy for macrophages were deter-mined. The implementation of macrophages into the skin model focused on the minimization of the culture time to preserve immune cell viability and phenotype, as the environment has a major influence on cell polarization and cytokine production. To this end, incorporation of macrophages in 3D gels prior to the combination with skin models was selected to better mimic the in vivo environment. Em-bedded in collagen hydrogels, macrophages displayed a homogeneous cell distribution within the gel, preserving cell viability, their ability to respond to stimuli and their capability to migrate through the matrix, which are all needed during the involvement of macrophages in the inflammatory response. Once established how to introduce macrophages into skin models, different culture media were evaluated for their effects on primary fibroblasts, keratinocytes and macrophages, to identify a suitable medium composition for the culture of immunocompetent skin. The present work confirmed that each cell type requires a different supplement combination for maintaining functional features and showed for the first time that media that promote and maintain a mature skin structure have negative effects on primary macrophages. Skin differentiation media negatively affected macrophages in terms of viability, morphology, ability to respond to pro- and anti-inflammatory stimuli and to migrate through a collagen gel. The combination of wounded skin equivalents and macrophage-containing gels con-firmed that culture medium inhibits macrophage participation in the inflammatory response that oc-curs after wounding. The described macrophage inclusion method for immunocompetent skin creation is a promising approach for generating more relevant skin models. Further optimization of the co-cul-ture medium will potentially allow mimicking a physiological inflammatory response, enabling to eval-uate the effects novel drugs designed for improved healing on improved in vitro models.
The pathogenic role of endogenous antibodies in a mouse model for Charcot-Marie-Tooth 1B neuropathy
(2015)
Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) type 1 neuropathies are a genetically heterogeneous group of non-treatable inherited disorders affecting the peripheral nervous system that lead to sensory and motor dysfunction. Secondary low grade inflammation, implicating the innate and adaptive immune system, could previously be identified as a substantial disease modifier in two mouse models for CMT1, CMT1B and 1X, respectively. However, the exact mechanism how the adaptive immune system contributes to disease pathogenesis is not completely understood. Based on observations that the accumulation of endogenous antibodies to myelin components is important for rapid myelin clearance after nerve injury during Wallerian degeneration, a possibly similar mechanism was considered for endogenous antibodies as disease amplifier in mice heterozygously deficient for P0 (P0het), mimicking some typical features of CMT1B.
In this study an increased antibody deposition was detected in the affected peripheral nerves of P0het myelin mutant mice. By crossbreeding P0het mutants with mice specifically lacking B-lymphocytes, and therefore antibodies (JHD-/-), a decline of endoneurial macrophages together with a substantially ameliorated demyelination could be demonstrated in 6-month-old mutant mice. Moreover, reconstitution with murine IgGs reverted the neuropathic phenotype, substantiating that endogenous antibodies are potentially pathogenic at this early stage of disease. Unexpectedly, in 12-months-old P0het mutants, JHD deficiency resulted in disease aggravation accompanied by an increased inflammatory reaction and M2-polarized macrophage response.
These observations suggest that in a mouse model for CMT1B, the lack of endogenous antibodies has a dichotomous effect: ameliorating early macrophage-mediated demyelination, as opposed to increasing inflammatory reactions leading to disease aggravation at older ages.
The interplay of specific leukocyte subpopulations, resident cells and proalgesic mediators results in pain in inflammation. Proalgesic mediators like reactive oxygen species (ROS) and downstream products elicit pain by stimulation of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. The contribution of leukocyte subpopulations however is less clear. Local injection of neutrophilic chemokines elicits neutrophil recruitment but no hyperalgesia in rats. In meta-analyses the monocytic chemoattractant, CCL2 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MCP-1), was identified as an important factor in the pathophysiology of human and animal pain. In this study, intraplantar injection of CCL2 elicited thermal and mechanical pain in Wistar but not in Dark Agouti (DA) rats, which lack p47phox, a part of the NADPH oxidase complex. Inflammatory hyperalgesia after complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) as well as capsaicin-induced hyperalgesia and capsaicin-induced current flow in dorsal root ganglion neurons in DA were comparable to Wistar rats. Macrophages from DA expressed lower levels of CCR2 and thereby migrated less towards CCL2 and formed limited amounts of ROS in vitro and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) in the tissue in response to CCL2 compared to Wistar rats. Local adoptive transfer of peritoneal macrophages from Wistar but not from DA rats reconstituted CCL2-triggered hyperalgesia in leukocyte-depleted DA and Wistar rats. A pharmacological stimulator of ROS production (phytol) restored CCL2-induced hyperalgesia in vivo in DA rats. In Wistar rats, CCL2-induced hyperalgesia was completely blocked by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase or tempol. Likewise, inhibition of NADPH oxidase by apocynin reduced CCL2-elicited hyperalgesia but not CFA-induced inflammatory hyperalgesia. In summary, we provide a link between CCL2, CCR2 expression on macrophages, NADPH oxidase, ROS and the development CCL2-triggered hyperalgesia, which is different from CFA-induced hyperalgesia. The study further supports the impact of CCL2 and ROS as potential targets in pain therapy.
T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is commonly associated with activating mutations in the NOTCH1 pathway. Recent reports have shown a link between NOTCH1 signaling and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis in T-ALL. Here, we investigate the role of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) mediated by the Ca2+ channel ORAI1 and its activators STIM1 and STIM2 in T-ALL. Deletion of STIM1 and STIM2 in leukemic cells abolishes SOCE and significantly prolongs the survival of mice in a NOTCH1-dependent model of T-ALL. The survival advantage is unrelated to the leukemic cell burden but is associated with the SOCE-dependent ability of malignant T lymphoblasts to cause inflammation in leukemia-infiltrated organs. Mice with STIM1/STIM2-deficient T-ALL show a markedly reduced necroinflammatory response in leukemia-infiltrated organs and downregulation of signaling pathways previously linked to cancer-induced inflammation. Our study shows that leukemic T lymphoblasts cause inflammation of leukemia-infiltrated organs that is dependent on SOCE.
Community-acquired (CA) Staphylococcus aureus cause various diseases even in healthy individuals. Enhanced virulence of CA-strains is partly attributed to increased production of toxins such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSM). The pathogen is internalized efficiently by mammalian host cells and intracellular S. aureus has recently been shown to contribute to disease. Upon internalization, cytotoxic S. aureus strains can disrupt phagosomal membranes and kill host cells in a PSM-dependent manner. However, PSM are not sufficient for these processes. Here we screened for factors required for intracellular S. aureus virulence. We infected escape reporter host cells with strains from an established transposon mutant library and detected phagosomal escape rates using automated microscopy. We thereby, among other factors, identified a non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) to be required for efficient phagosomal escape and intracellular survival of S. aureus as well as induction of host cell death. By genetic complementation as well as supplementation with the synthetic NRPS product, the cyclic dipeptide phevalin, wild-type phenotypes were restored. We further demonstrate that the NRPS is contributing to virulence in a mouse pneumonia model. Together, our data illustrate a hitherto unrecognized function of the S. aureus NRPS and its dipeptide product during S. aureus infection.
Macrophages predominate the inflammatory landscape within multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions, not only regarding cellularity but also with respect to the diverse functions this cell fraction provides during disease progression and remission. Researchers have been well aware of the fact that the macrophage pool during central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity consists of a mixture of myeloid cells. Yet, separating these populations to define their unique contribution to disease pathology has long been challenging due to their similar marker expression. Sophisticated lineage tracing approaches as well as comprehensive transcriptome analysis have elevated our insight into macrophage biology to a new level enabling scientists to dissect the roles of resident (microglia and non-parenchymal macrophages) and infiltrating macrophages with unprecedented precision. To do so in an accurate way, researchers have to know their toolbox, which has been filled with diverse, discriminating approaches from decades of studying neuroinflammation in animal models. Every method has its own strengths and weaknesses, which will be addressed in this review. The focus will be on tools to manipulate and/or identify different macrophage subgroups within the injured murine CNS.
Inflammation following ischaemic stroke attracts high priority in current research, particularly using human-like models and long-term observation periods considering translational aspects. The present study aimed on the spatio-temporal course of macrophage-like cell accumulation after experimental thromboembolic stroke and addressed microglial and astroglial reactions in the ischaemic border zone. Further, effects of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) as currently best treatment for stroke and the potentially neuroprotective co-administration of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) were investigated. Rats underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion and were assigned to control, tPA or tPA+HBO. Twenty-four hours, 7, 14 and 28 days were determined as observation time points. The accumulation of macrophage-like cells was semiquantitatively assessed by CD68 staining in the ischaemic area and ischaemic border zone, and linked to the clinical course. CD11b, ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and Neuronal Nuclei (NeuN) were applied to reveal delayed glial and neuronal alterations. In all groups, the accumulation of macrophage-like cells increased distinctly from 24 hours to 7 days post ischaemia. tPA+HBO tended to decrease macrophage-like cell accumulation at day 14 and 28. Overall, a trend towards an association of increased accumulation and pronounced reduction of the neurological deficit was found. Concerning delayed inflammatory reactions, an activation of microglia and astrocytes with co-occurring neuronal loss was observed on day 28. Thereby, astrogliosis was found circularly in contrast to microglial activation directly in the ischaemic area. This study supports previous data on long-lasting inflammatory processes following experimental stroke, and additionally provides region-specific details on glial reactions. The tendency towards a decreasing macrophage-like cell accumulation after tPA+HBO needs to be discussed critically since neuroprotective properties were recently ascribed to long-term inflammatory processes.
Diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN) is the most common complication in diabetes and can be painful in up to 26% of all diabetic patients. Peripheral nerves are shielded by the blood-nerve barrier (BNB) consisting of the perineurium and endoneurial vessels. So far, there are conflicting results regarding the role and function of the BNB in the pathophysiology of DPN. In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal tight junction protein profile, barrier permeability, and vessel-associated macrophages in Wistar rats with streptozotocin-induced DPN. In these rats, mechanical hypersensitivity developed after 2 weeks and loss of motor function after 8 weeks, while the BNB and the blood-DRG barrier were leakier for small, but not for large molecules after 8 weeks only. The blood-spinal cord barrier remained sealed throughout the observation period. No gross changes in tight junction protein or cytokine expression were observed in all barriers to blood. However, expression of Cldn1 mRNA in perineurium was specifically downregulated in conjunction with weaker vessel-associated macrophage shielding of the BNB. Our results underline the role of specific tight junction proteins and BNB breakdown in DPN maintenance and differentiate DPN from traumatic nerve injury. Targeting claudins and sealing the BNB could stabilize pain and prevent further nerve damage.
Interleukin 10 is a central regulator of the antigen-presenting function of myeloid cells. It exerts immunomodulatory effects in vivo and induces a regulatory phenotype in monocyte-derived cells in vitro. We analyzed phenotype and function of monocytic cells in vitro in relation to the cytokine milieu and the timing of TLR-based activation. In GM-CSF/IL-4 cultured human monocytic cells, we identified two, mutually exclusive cell populations arising from undifferentiated cells: CD83\(^+\) fully activated dendritic cells and CD14\(^+\) macrophage like cells. Re-expression of CD14 occurs primarily after a sequential trigger with a TLR signal following IL-10 preincubation. This cell population with re-expressed CD14 greatly differs in phenotype and function from the CD83+ cells. Detailed analysis of individual subpopulations reveals that exogenous IL-10 is critical for inducing the shift toward the CD14\(^+\) population, but does not affect individual changes in marker expression or cell function in most cases. Thus, plasticity of CD14 expression, defining a subset of immunoregulatory cells, is highly relevant for the composition of cellular products (such as DC vaccines) as it affects the function of the total product.
Makrophagen spielen als Zellen der angeborenen Abwehr eine wichtige Rolle bei der Immunabwehr. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die phänotypische und funktionelle Charakterisierung von Alveolarmakrophagen der Ratte. Hierzu wurden die durch eine bronchoalveoläre Lavage gewonnenen Alveolarmakrophagen immunhistologisch und durchflusszytometrisch untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden sie in vitro mit LPS und IFN-g stimuliert. Die Produktion von Stickstoffmonoxid wurde mit dem Griess Reagenz bestimmt und die Expression von iNOS im Immunoblot nachgewiesen. Zudem wurde die Interaktion mit naiven T-Lymphozyten untersucht. Als Vergleichszellen wurden Peritonealmakrophagen verwendet. Bei den aus bronchoalveolären Lavagen gewonnenen Zellen handelte es sich eindeutig um CD68- und CD11b-positive Alveolarmakrophagen. Vollständig aktivierte Alveolarmakrophagen exprimierten zum Teil andere Oberflächenmoleküle als nicht-aktivierte. So stieg nach Stimulierung der Anteil der Makrophagen, die die kostimulatorischen Moleküle CD80 und CD86 exprimierten, auf ca. 80 Prozent an. Ebenso bildeten sie große Mengen an Stickstoffmonoxid (380 μmol/L NO nach 48 Stunden bei 1 μg/mL LPS) und exprimierten auch das Enzym iNOS. Die aktivierten Alveolarmakrophagen waren nicht in der Lage, naive T-Lymphozyten zu aktivieren. Die Stimulierung der Alveolarmakrophagen in vitro hat gezeigt, dass LPS und IFN-g in den getesteten Konzentrationen in der Lage waren, Makrophagen vollständig zu aktivieren. Die zweistufige Aktivierung von Makrophagen durch ein Priming mit IFN-g und eine darauf folgende vollständige Aktivierung mit LPS, ist bei hohen lokalen Konzentrationen auch nur mit LPS bzw. IFN- g möglich. Dies unterstreicht die besondere Bedeutung der beiden Mediatoren für die Aktivierung von Makrophagen.
Pentacyclic triterpenes from Cecropia telenitida with immunomodulatory activity on dendritic cells
(2013)
Pentacyclic triterpenes are a large family of plant metabolites that exhibit a wide array of biological activities. The genus Cecropia, which encompasses many plant species, has been used as traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and is known to produce many active pentacyclic triterpenes. In this study we investigated the chemical composition of a pentacyclic triterpene fraction from the roots of Cecropia telenitida Cuatrec., Urticaceae. A novel compound, which we termed yarumic acid, and four known molecules (serjanic acid, spergulagenic acid A, 20-hydroxy-ursolic acid and goreishic acid I) were isolated and characterised. In a dendritic cell (DC)-based assay, we demonstrated that non-toxic doses of these pentacyclic triterpenes inhibited the secretion of at least one of the proinflammatory cytokines tested (IL-1 beta, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, TNF-alpha). Spergulagenic acid A also inhibited nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated dendritic cell. Serjanic acid and spergulagenic acid A, which were the most potent abundant compounds in the pentacyclic triterpene fraction, showed the most activity in the dendritic cell-based assay. These results show that all pentacyclic triterpenes might contribute to the anti-inflammatory activities of C. telenitida. Moreover, yarumic acid as well as the four known pentacyclic triterpenes, can be exploited as potential immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory agents.
Pediatric tumors-mediated inhibitory effect on NK cells: the case of neuroblastoma and Wilms' tumors
(2021)
Natural killer (NK) cells play a key role in the control of cancer development, progression and metastatic dissemination. However, tumor cells develop an array of strategies capable of impairing the activation and function of the immune system, including NK cells. In this context, a major event is represented by the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) composed of stromal cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, tumor-associated macrophages, regulatory T cells and cancer cells themselves. The different immunoregulatory cells infiltrating the TME, through the release of several immunosuppressive molecules or by cell-to-cell interactions, cause an impairment of the recruitment of NK cells and other lymphocytes with effector functions. The different mechanisms by which stromal and tumor cells impair NK cell function have been particularly explored in adult solid tumors and, in less depth, investigated and discussed in a pediatric setting. In this review, we will compare pediatric and adult solid malignancies concerning the respective mechanisms of NK cell inhibition, highlighting novel key data in neuroblastoma and Wilms’ tumor, two of the most frequent pediatric extracranial solid tumors. Indeed, both tumors are characterized by the presence of stromal cells acting through the release of immunosuppressive molecules. In addition, specific tumor cell subsets inhibit NK cell cytotoxic function by cell-to-cell contact mechanisms likely controlled by the transcriptional coactivator TAZ. These findings could lead to a more performant diagnostic approach and to the development of novel immunotherapeutic strategies targeting the identified cellular and molecular targets.
Leishmanien besitzen eine Vielzahl von Mechanismen, die humorale und zelluläre Immunabwehr effektiv zu unterlaufen. Diese hängen eng mit der Expression von hauptsächlich zwei Glykokonjugaten auf der Parasitenoberfläche zusammen, dem gp63 und dem Lipophosphoglykan. Die Parasiten sind einerseits schlechte Aktivatoren des alternativen Komplementweges und umgehen damit ihre eigene extrazelluläre Lyse. Oberflächengebundene Komplementfaktoren fördern andererseits die Aufnahme der Leishmanien durch Makrophagen. Solange diese nicht durch T-Zellen aktiviert sind, dienen sie den Parasiten als "Refugium". Dies gilt insbesondere, als Leishmanien in der Lage sind, 1. den "oxidative burst" zu hemmen; 2. toxische Sauerstoffmetaboliten zu entgiften; 3. abbauende lysosomale Enzyme zu hemmen und 4. das saure Milieu in den Lysosomen für ihren eigenen Metabolismus auszunutzen. Schließlich unterlaufen Leishmanien die zelluläre Immunabwehr des Wirts, indem sie die Aktivierung von T-Lymphozyten hemmen und die Expansion von T-Zell-Sub-populationen bewirken, die für ihr eigenes Überleben nützlich sind.
Background: In infarcted heart, improper clearance of dying cells by activated neighboring phagocytes may precipitate the transition to heart failure. We analyzed the coordinated role of 2 major mediators of efferocytosis, the myeloid-epithelial-reproductive protein tyrosine kinase (Mertk) and the milk fat globule epidermal growth factor (Mfge8), in directing cardiac remodeling by skewing the inflammatory response after myocardial infarction.
Methods and Results: We generated double-deficient mice for Mertk and Mfge8 (Mertk\(^{-/-}\)/Mfge8\(^{-/-}\)) and challenged them with acute coronary ligature. Compared with wild-type, Mertk-deficient (Mertk\(^{-/-}\)), or Mfge8-deficient (Mfge8\(^{-/-}\)) animals, Mertk\(^{-/-}\)/Mfge8\(^{-/-}\) mice displayed greater alteration in cardiac function and remodeling. Mertk and Mfge8 were expressed mainly by cardiac Ly6C\(^{High and Low}\) monocytes and macrophages. In parallel, Mertk\(^{-/-}\)/Mfge8\(^{-/-}\) bone marrow chimeras manifested increased accumulation of apoptotic cells, enhanced fibrotic area, and larger infarct size, as well as reduced angiogenesis. We found that the abrogation of efferocytosis affected neither the ability of circulating monocytes to infiltrate cardiac tissue nor the number of resident Ly6C\(^{High}\) and Ly6C\(^{Low}\) monocytes/macrophages populating the infarcted milieu. In contrast, combined Mertk and Mfge8 deficiency in Ly6C\(^{High}\)/Ly6C\(^{Low}\) monocytes/macrophages either obtained from in vitro differentiation of bone marrow cells or isolated from infarcted hearts altered their capacity of efferocytosis and subsequently blunted vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) release. Using LysMCre\(^+\)/VEGFA\(^{fl/fl}\) mice, we further identified an important role for myeloid-derived VEGFA in improving cardiac function and angiogenesis.
Conclusions: After myocardial infarction, Mertk- and Mfge8-expressing monocyte/macrophages synergistically engage the clearance of injured cardiomyocytes, favoring the secretion of VEGFA to locally repair the dysfunctional heart.