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Eclosion is the emergence of an adult insect from the pupal case at the end of development. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, eclosion is a circadian clock-gated event and is regulated by various peptides. When studied on the population level, eclosion reveals a clear rhythmicity with a peak at the beginning of the light-phase that persists also under constant conditions. It is a long standing hypothesis that eclosion gating to the morning hours with more humid conditions is an adaption to reduce water loss and increase the survival. Eclosion behavior, including the motor pattern required for the fly to hatch out of the puparium, is orchestrated by a well-characterized cascade of peptides. The main components are ecdysis-triggering hormone (ETH), eclosion hormone (EH) and crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP). The molt is initiated by a peak level and pupal ecdysis by a subsequent decline of the ecdysteroid ecdysone. Ecdysteroids are produced by the prothoracic gland (PG), an endocrine tissue that contains a peripheral clock and degenerates shortly after eclosion. Production and release of ecdysteroids are regulated by the prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH).
Although many aspects of the circadian clock and the peptidergic control of the eclosion behavior are known, it still remains unclear how both systems are interconnected. The aim of this dissertation research was to dissect this connection and evaluate the importance of different Zeitgebers on eclosion rhythmicity under natural conditions.
Potential interactions between the central clock and the peptides regulating ecdysis motor behavior were evaluated by analyzing the influence of CCAP on eclosion rhythmicity. Ablation and silencing of CCAP neurons, as well as CCAP null-mutation did not affect eclosion rhythmicity under either light or temperature entrainment nor under natural conditions.
To dissect the connection between the central and the peripheral clock, PTTH neurons were ablated. Monitoring eclosion under light and temperature entrainment revealed that eclosion became arrhythmic under constant conditions. However, qPCR expression analysis revealed no evidence for cycling of Ptth mRNA in pharate flies. To test for a connection with pigment-dispersing factor (PDF)-expressing neurons, the PDF receptor (PDFR) and short neuropeptide F receptor (sNPFR) were knocked down in the PTTH neurons. Knockdown of sNPFR, but not PDFR, resulted in arrhythmic eclosion under constant darkness conditions. PCR analysis of the PTTH receptor, Torso, revealed its expression in the PG and the gonads, but not in the brain or eyes, of pharate flies. Knockdown of torso in the PG lead to arrhythmicity under constant conditions, which provides strong evidence for the specific effect of PTTH on the PG. These results suggest connections from the PDF positive lateral neurons to the PTTH neurons via sNPF signaling, and to the PG via PTTH and Torso. This interaction presumably couples the period of the peripheral clock in the PG to that of the central clock in the brain.
To identify a starting signal for eclosion and possible further candidates in the regulation of eclosion behavior, chemically defined peptidergic and aminergic neurons were optogenetically activated in pharate pupae via ChR2-XXL. This screen approach revealed two candidates for the regulation of eclosion behavior: Dromyosuppressin (DMS) and myo-inhibitory peptides (MIP). However, ablation of DMS neurons did not affect eclosion rhythmicity or success and the exact function of MIP must be evaluated in future studies.
To assess the importance of the clock and of possible Zeitgebers in nature, eclosion of the wildtype Canton S and the clock mutant per01 and the PDF signaling mutants pdf01 and han5304 was monitored under natural conditions. For this purpose, the Würzburg eclosion monitor (WEclMon) was developed, which is a new open monitoring system that allows direct exposure of pupae to the environment. A general decline of rhythmicity under natural conditions compared to laboratory conditions was observed in all tested strains. While the wildtype and the pdf01 and han5304 mutants stayed weakly rhythmic, the per01 mutant flies eclosed mostly arrhythmic. PDF and its receptor (PDFR encoded by han) are required for the synchronization of the clock network and functional loss can obviously be compensated by a persisting synchronization to external Zeitgebers. The loss of the central clock protein PER, however, lead to a non-functional clock and revealed the absolute importance of the clock for eclosion rhythmicity. To quantitatively analyze the effect of the clock and abiotic factors on eclosion rhythmicity, a statistical model was developed in cooperation with Oliver Mitesser and Thomas Hovestadt. The modelling results confirmed the clock as the most important factor for eclosion rhythmicity. Moreover, temperature was found to have the strongest effect on the actual shape of the daily emergence pattern, while light has only minor effects. Relative humidity could be excluded as Zeitgeber for eclosion and therefore was not further analyzed.
Taken together, the present dissertation identified the so far unknown connection between the central and peripheral clock regulating eclosion. Furthermore, a new method for the analysis of eclosion rhythms under natural conditions was established and the necessity of a functional clock for rhythmic eclosion even in the presence of multiple Zeitgebers was shown.
The rotation of the earth around its own axis determines periodically changing environmental conditions, like alterations in light and temperature. For the purpose of adapting all organisms’ behavior, physiology and metabolism to recurring changes, endogenous clocks have evolved, which allow the organisms to anticipate environmental changes. In chronobiology, the scientific field dealing with the investigation of the underlying mechanisms of the endogenous clock, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster serves as a beneficial model organism. The fruit fly’s circadian clock exhibits a rather simple anatomical organization, but nevertheless constitutes homologies to the mammalian system. Thus also in this PhD-thesis the fruit fly was used to decipher general features of the circadian clock’s interneuronal communication.
Drosophila melanogaster’s circadian clock consists of about 150 clock neurons, which are located in the central nervous system of the fly. These clock neurons can be subdivided regarding to their anatomical position in the brain into the dorsal neurons (DN1s, DN2s, DN3s), as well as into the lateral neurons (LPNs, LNds, s-LNvs, l-LNvs). Functionally these clock neuron clusters can be classified as Morning- and Evening oscillators (M- and E- oscillators), driving different parts of the fly’s locomotor activity in light-dark conditions (LD). The Morning-oscillators are represented by the s-LNvs and are known to be the main pacemakers, driving the pace of the clock in constant conditions (constant darkness; DD). The group of Evening-oscillators consists of the LNds, the DN1s and the 5th s-LNv and is important for the proper timing of the evening activity in LD. All of these clock neurons are not functionally independent, but form complex neuronal connections, which are highly plastic in their response to different environmental stimuli (Zeitgebers), like light or temperature.
Even though a lot is known about the function and the importance of some clock neuron clusters, the exact interplay between the neurons is not fully known yet. To investigate the mechanisms, which are involved in communication processes among different clock neurons, we depolarized specific clock cells in a temporally and cell-type restricted manner using dTrpA1, a thermosensitive cation channel, which allows the depolarization of neurons by application of temperature pulses (TP) above 29°C to the intact and freely moving fly. Using different clock specific GAL4-driver lines and applying TPs at different time points within the circadian cycle in DD enabled us with the help of phase shift experiments to draw conclusions on the properties of the endogenous clock. The obtained phase shifts in locomotor behavior elicited by specific clock neuronal activation were plotted as phase response curves (PRCs).
The depolarization of all clock neurons shifted the phase of activity the strongest, especially in the delay zone of the PRC. The exclusive depolarization of the M oscillators together with the l-LNvs (PDF+ neurons: s-LNvs & l-LNvs) caused shifts in the delay and in the advance zone as well, however the advances were severely enhanced in their temporal occurrence ranging into the subjective day. We concluded that light might have inhibitory effects on the PDF+ cells in that particular part of the PRC, as typical light PRCs do not exhibit that kind of distinctive advances. By completely excluding light in the PRC-experiments of this PhD-thesis, this photic inhibitory input to the PDF+ neurons is missing, probably causing the broadened advance zone. These findings suggest the existence of an inhibitory light-input pathway to the PDF+ cells from the photoreceptive organs (Hofbauer-Buchner eyelet, photoreceptor cells of compound eyes, ocelli) or from other clock neurons, which might inhibit phase advances during the subjective day.
To get an impression of the molecular state of the clock in the delay and advance zone, staining experiments against Period (PER), one of the most important core clock components, and against the neuropeptide Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF) were performed. The cycling of PER levels mirrored the behavioral phase shifts in experimental flies, whereas the controls were widely unaffected. As just those neurons, which had been depolarized, exhibited immediate shifted PER oscillations, this effect has to be rapidly regulated in a cell-autonomous manner.
However, the molecular link between clock neuron depolarization and shifts in the molecular clock’s cycling is still missing. This issue was addressed by CREB (cAMP responsive element binding protein) quantification in the large ventrolateral neurons (l-LNvs), as these neurons responded unexpectedly and strongest to the artificial depolarization exhibiting a huge increase in PER levels. It had been previously suggested that CREB is involved in circadian rhythms by binding to regulatory sequences of the period gene (Belvin et al., 1999), thus activating its transcription. We were able to show, that CREB levels in the l-LNvs are under circadian regulation, as they exhibit higher CREB levels at the end of the subjective night relative to the end of the subjective day. That effect was further reinforced by artificial depolarization, independently of the time point of depolarization. Furthermore the data indicate that rises in CREB levels are coinciding with the time point of increases of PER levels in the l-LNvs, suggesting CREB being the molecular link between the neuronal electrical state and the molecular clock.
Taking together, the results indicate that a temporal depolarization using dTrpA1 is able to significantly phase shift the clock on the behavioral and protein level. An artificial depolarization at the beginning of the subjective night caused phase delays, whereas a depolarization at the end of the subjective night resulted in advances. The activation of all clock neurons caused a PRC that roughly resembled a light-PRC. However, the depolarization of the PDF+ neurons led to a PRC exhibiting a shape that did not resemble that of a light-mediated PRC, indicating the complex processing ability of excitatory and inhibitory input by the circadian clock. Even though this experimental approach is highly artificial, just the exclusion of light-inputs enabled us to draw novel conclusions on the network communication and its light input pathways.
Finding the right behavior at the right time is one of the major tasks of brains. In a natural scenery there is often an abundance of stimuli present and the brain has to separate the relevant from the irrelevant ones. Selective visual attention (SVA) is a property of higher visual systems that achieves this separation, as it allows to ‘[…] focus on one source of sensory input to the exclusion of others’ (Luck and Mangun, 1996). There are probably several forms of SVA depending upon the criteria used for the separation, such as salience, color, location in space, novelty, or motion. Many studies have investigated SVA in humans and non-human primates. However, complex functions like attention were initially not expected to be already implemented in the brains of simple organisms like Drosophila. After a first demonstration of selective attention in the fly (Wolf and Heisenberg, 1980), it took some time until other studies included attentional mechanisms in their argumentation to explain certain behaviors of Drosophila. However, their definition and characterization of attention differed and often was ambiguous.
Here, one particular form, spatially selective visual attention in the fly Drosophila is investigated. It has been shown earlier that the fly spontaneously may restrict its behavioral responses in stationary flight to the visual stimuli on one side of the visual field. On the basis of experiments of Sareen et al., (2011) it has been conjectured that the fly has a focus of attention (FoA) and that the fly responds to the visual stimuli within this area of the visual field. Whether the FoA is the adequate concept for this spatial property of SVA in the fly needs to be further discussed and is a subject also of the present study. At this stage, the concept will be used in the description of the new results expanding the characterization of SVA.
This study continued the investigation of SVA during tethered flight with variable but controlled visual input and an automated primary data evaluation. This standardized paradigm allowed for analysis of wild-type behavior as well as for a comparison of several mutant and pharmacologically manipulated strains to the wild-type. Some properties of human SVA like the occurrence of externally as well as internally caused shifts of attention were found in Drosophila and it could be shown, that SVA in the fly can be externally guided and has an attention span. Additionally, a neurotransmitter and proteins, which play a significant role in SVA were discovered. Based on this, the genetic tools available for Drosophila provided the means to a first examination of cells and circuits involved in SVA. Finally, the free walk behavior of flies that had been shown to have compromised SVA was characterized. The results suggested that the observed phenotypes of SVA were not behavior specific.
Covert shifts of the FoA were investigated. The FoA can be externally guided by visual cues to one or the other side of the visual field and even after the cue has disappeared it remains there for <4s. An intriguing finding of this study is the fact, that the quality of the cue determines whether it is attractive or repellent. For example a cue can be changed from being repellent (negative) to being attractive (positive) by changing its oscillation amplitude from 4° to 2°. Testing the effectiveness of cues in the upper and lower visual field separately, revealed that the perception of a cue by the fly is not exclusively based on a sum of its specifications. Because positive cueing did not have an after-effect in each of the two half-fields alone, but did so if the cue was shown in both, the fly seems to evaluate the cue for each combination of parameters specifically. Whether this evaluation of the cue changed on a trial-to-trial basis or if the cue in some cases failed to shift the FoA can at this point not be determined.
Looking at the responses of the fly to the displacement of a black vertical stripe showed that they can be categorized as no responses, syn-directional responses (following the direction of motion of the stripe) and anti-directional responses (in the opposite direction of the motion of the stripe). The yaw-torque patterns of the latter bared similarities with spontaneous body saccades and they most likely represented escape attempts of the fly. Syn-directional responses, however, were genuine object responses, distinguishable by a longer latency until they were elicited and a larger amplitude. These properties as well as the distribution of response polarities were not influenced by the presence or absence of a cue. When two stripes were displaced simultaneously in opposite directions the rate of no responses increased in comparison to the displacement of a single stripe. If one of the stripes was cued, both, the responses towards and away from the side of cue resembled the syn-directional responses.
Significant progress was made with the elucidation of the neuronal underpinnings of SVA. Ablation of the mushroom bodies (MB) demonstrated their requirement for SVA. Furthermore, it was shown that dopamine signaling has to be balanced between too much and too little. Either inhibiting the synthesis of dopamine or its re-uptake at the synapse via the dDAT impaired the flies’ susceptibility to cueing. Using the Gal4/UAS system, cell specific expression or knockdown of the dDAT was used to scrutinize the role of MB sub-compartments in SVA. The αβ-lobes turned out to be necessary and sufficient to maintain SVA. The Gal4-line c708a labels only a subset of Kenyon cells (KC) within the αβ-lobes, αβposterior. These cells stand out, because of (A) the mesh-like arrangement of their fibers within the lobes and (B) the fact that unlike the other KCs they bypass the calyx and thereby the main source of olfactory input to the MBs, forming connections only in the posterior accessory calyx (Tanaka et al., 2008). This structure receives no or only marginal olfactory input, suggesting for it a role in tasks other than olfaction. This study shows their requirement in a visual task by demonstrating that they are necessary to uphold SVA. Restoring dDAT function in these approximately only 90 cells was probably insufficient to lower the dopamine concentration at the relevant synapses and hence a rescue failed. Alternatively, the processes mediating SVA at the αβ-lobes might require an interplay between all of their KCs. In conclusion, the results provide an initial point for future research to fully understand the localization of and circuitry required for SVA in the brain.
In the experiments described so far, attention has been externally guided. However, flies are also able to internally shift their FoA without any cues from the outside world. In a set of 60 consecutive simultaneous displacements of two stripes, they were more likely to produce a response with the same polarity as the preceding one than a random polarity selection predicted. This suggested a dwelling of the FoA on one side of the visual field. Assuming that each response was influenced by the previous one in a way that the probability to repeat the response polarity was increased by a certain factor (dwelling factor, df), a random selection of response type including a df was computed. Implementation of the df removed the difference between observed probability of polarity repetition and the one suggested by random selection. When the interval between displacements was iteratively increased to 5s, no significant df could be detected anymore for pauses longer than 4s. In conclusion, Drosophila has an attention span of approximately 4s. Flies with a mutation in the radish gene expressed no after-effect of cueing and had a shortened attention span of about 1s. The dDAT inhibitor methylphenidate is able to rescue the first, but does not affect the latter phenotype. Probably, radish is differently involved in the two mechanisms.
This study showed, that endogenous (covert) shifts of spatially selective visual attention in the fly Drosophila can be internally and externally guided. The variables determining the quality of a cue turned out to be multifaceted and a more systematic approach is needed for a better understanding of what property or feature of the cue changes the way it is evaluated by the fly. A first step has been made to demonstrate that SVA is a fundamental process and compromising it can influence the characteristics of other behaviors like walking. The existence of an attention span, the dependence of SVA on dopamine as well as the susceptibility to pharmacological manipulations, which in humans are used to treat respective diseases, point towards striking similarities between SVA in humans and Drosophila.
Organisms have evolved endogenous clocks which allow them to organize their behavior, metabolism and physiology according to the periodically changing environmental conditions on earth. Biological rhythms that are synchronized to daily changes in environment are governed by the so-called circadian clock. Since decades, chronobiologists have been investigating circadian clocks in various model organisms including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, which was used in the present thesis.
Anatomically, the circadian clock of the fruitfly consists of about 150 neurons in the lateral and dorsal protocerebrum, which are characterized by their position, morphology and neurochemistry. Some of these neurons had been previously shown to contain either one or several neuropeptides, which are thought to be the main signaling molecules used by the clock. The best investigated of these neuropeptides is the Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF), which had been shown to constitute a synchronizing signal between clock neurons as well as an output factor of the clock.
In collaboration with various coworkers, I investigated the roles of three other clock expressed neuropeptides for the generation of behavioral rhythms and the partly published, partly unpublished data are presented in this thesis. Thereby, I focused on the Neuropeptide F (NPF), short Neuropeptide F (sNPF) and the Ion Transport Peptide (ITP). We show that part of the neuropeptide composition within the clock network seems to be conserved among different Drosophila species. However, the PDF expression pattern in certain neurons varied in species deriving from lower latitudes compared to higher latitudes. Together with findings on the behavioral level provided by other people, these data suggest that different species may have altered certain properties of their clocks - like the neuropeptide expression in certain neurons - in order to adapt their behavior to different habitats.
We then investigated locomotor rhythms in Drosophila melanogaster flies, in which neuropeptide circuits were genetically manipulated either by cell ablation or RNA interference (RNAi). We found that none of the investigated neuropeptides seems to be of equal importance for circadian locomotor rhythms as PDF. PDF had been previously shown to be necessary for rhythm maintenance in constant darkness (DD) as well as for the generation of morning (M) activity and for the right phasing of the evening (E) activity in entrained conditions. We now demonstrate that NPF and ITP seem to promote E activity in entrained conditions, but are clearly not the only factors doing so. In addition, ITP seems to reduce nighttime activity. Further, ITP and possibly also sNPF constitute weak period shortening components in DD, thereby opposing the effect of PDF. However, neither NPF or ITP, nor sNPF seem to be necessary in the clock neurons for maintaining rhythmicity in DD.
It had been previously suggested that PDF is released rhythmically from the dorsal projection terminals. Now we discovered a rhythm in ITP immunostaining in the dorsal projection terminals of the ITP+ clock neurons in LD, suggesting a rhythm in peptide release also in the case of ITP. Rhythmic release of both ITP and PDF seems to be important to maintain rhythmic behavior in DD, since constantly high levels of PDF and ITP in the dorsal protocerebrum lead to behavioral arrhythmicity.
Applying live-imaging techniques we further demonstrate that sNPF acts in an inhibitory way on few clock neurons, including some that are also activated by PDF, suggesting that it acts as signaling molecule within the clock network and has opposing effects to PDF. NPF did only evoke very little inhibitory responses in very few clock neurons, suggesting that it might rather be used as a clock output factor. We were not able to apply the same live-imaging approach for the investigation of the clock neuron responsiveness to ITP, but overexpression of ITP with various driver lines showed that the peptide most likely acts mainly in clock output pathways rather than inter-clock neuron communication.
Taking together, I conclude that all investigated peptides contribute to the control of locomotor rhythms in the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. However, this control is in most aspects dominated by the actions of PDF and rather only fine-tuned or complemented by the other peptides. I assume that there is a high complexity in spatial and temporal action of the different neuropeptides in order to ensure correct signal processing within the clock network as well as clock output.
Circadianes und Stress-System sind zwei physiologische Systeme, die dem Organismus helfen sich an Veränderungen ihrer Umwelt anzupassen. Während letzteres spontane und schnelle Antworten auf akute, unvorhersehbare Umweltreize liefert, sagt das circadiane System täglich wiederkehrende Ereignisse vorher and bereitet den Organismus so vorzeitig auf diese nahende Umweltveränderung vor. Dennoch, trotz dieser unterschiedlichen Reaktionsmechanismen agieren beide Systeme nicht komplett autonom. Studien der vergangen Jahre belegen vielmehr eine Interaktion beider Systeme. So postulieren sie zum einem Unterschiede in der Stressantwort in Abhängigkeit von der Tageszeit zu der der Reiz auftritt und weisen zugleich auf eine Zunahme von gestörten biologischen Tagesrhythmen, wie zum Beispiel Schlafstörungen, in Folge von unkontrollierten oder exzessiven Stress hin. Ebenso liefern kürzlich durchgeführte Studien an Vertebraten und Pilzen Hinweise, dass mit p38, eine Stress-aktivierte Kinase, an der Signalweiterleitung zur inneren Uhr beteiligt ist (Hayashi et al., 2003), sogar durch dieses endogene Zeitmesssystem reguliert wird (Vitalini et al., 2007; Lamb et al., 2011) und deuten damit erstmals eine mögliche Verbindung zwischen Stress-induzierten und regulären rhythmischen Anpassungen des Organismus an Umweltveränderungen an. Molekulare und zelluläre Mechanismen dieser Verknüpfung sind bisher noch nicht bekannt.
Während die Rolle von p38 MAPK bei der Stress- und Immunantwort in Drosophila melanogaster gut charakterisiert ist, wurden Expression und Funktion von p38 in der inneren Uhr hingegen bislang nicht untersucht. Die hier vorliegende Arbeit hatte daher zum Ziel mittels immunhistochemischer, verhaltensphysiologischer und molekularer Methoden eine mögliche Rolle der Stress-aktivierten Kinase im circadianen System der Fliege aufzudecken. Antikörperfärbungen sowie Studien mit Reporterlinien zeigen deutliche Färbesignale in den s-LNv, l-LNv und DN1a und erbringen erstmals einen Nachweis für p38 Expression in den Uhrneuronen der Fliege. Ebenso scheint die Aktivität von p38 MAPK in den DN1a uhrgesteuert zu sein. So liegt p38 vermehrt in seiner aktiven Form in der Dunkelphase vor und zeigt, neben seiner circadian regulierten Aktivierung, zusätzlich auch eine Inaktivierung durch Licht. 15-Minuten-Lichtpulse in der subjektiven Nacht führen zu einer signifikanten Reduktion von aktivierter, phosphorylierter p38 MAPK in den DN1a von Canton S Wildtypfliegen im Vergleich zu Fliegen ohne Lichtpuls-Behandlung. Aufzeichnungen der Lokomotoraktivität offenbaren zusätzlich die Notwendigkeit von p38 MAPK für wildtypisches Timing der Abendaktivität sowie zum Erhalt von 24-Stunden-Verhaltensrhythmen unter konstanten Dauerdunkel-Bedindungen. So zeigen Fliegen mit reduzierten p38 Level in Uhrneuronen einen verzögerten Beginn der Abendaktivität und stark verlängerte Freilaufperioden. In Übereinstimmung mit Effekten auf das Laufverhalten scheint darüber hinaus die Expression einer dominant-negativen Form von p38b in Drosophila’s wichtigsten Uhrneuronen eine verspätete nukleäre Translokation von Period zur Folge zu haben. Westernblots legen zusätzlich einen Einfluss von p38 auf den Phosphorylierungsgrad von Period nahe und liefern damit einen mögliche Erklärung für den verspäteten Kerneintritt des Uhrproteins. Abschließende Stützung der Westernblotergebnisse bringen in vitro Kinasenassays und deuten auf p38 als eine potentielle „Uhrkinase“ hin, welche auch in vivo Period an Serin 661 sowie weiteren potentiellen Phosphorylierungsstellen phosphorylieren könnte.
Zusammengenommen deuten die Ergebnisse der hier vorliegenden Arbeit eindeutig auf eine bedeutende Rolle von p38, neben dessen Funkion im Stress-System, auch im circadianen System der Fliege hin und offenbaren damit die Möglichkeit, dass p38 als Schnittstelle zwischen beider Systeme fungiert.
To unravel the role of single genes underlying certain biological processes, scientists often use amorphic or hypomorphic alleles. In the past, such mutants were often created by chance. Enormous approaches with many animals and massive screening effort for striking phenotypes were necessary to find a needle in the haystack. Therefore at the beginning chemical mutagens or radiation were used to induce mutations in the genome. Later P-element insertions and inaccurate jump-outs enabled the advantage of potential larger deletions or inversions. The mutations were characterized and subsequently kept in smaller populations in the laboratories. Thus additional mutations with unknown background effects could accumulate.
The precision of the knockout through homologous recombination and the additional advantage of being able to generate many useful rescue constructs that can be easily reintegrated into the target locus made us trying an ends-out targeting procedure of the two core clock genes period and timeless in Drosophila melanogaster. Instead of the endogenous region, a small fragment of approximately 100 base pairs remains including an attP-site that can be used as integration site for in vitro created rescue constructs. After a successful ends-out targeting procedure, the locus will be restored with e.g. flies expressing the endogenous gene under the native promoter at the original locus coupled to a fluorescence tag or expressing luciferase.
We also linked this project to other research interests of our work group, like the epigenetic related ADAR-editing project of the Timeless protein, a promising newly discovered feature of time point specific timeless mRNA modification after transcription with yet unexplored consequences. The editing position within the Timeless protein is likewise interesting and not only noticed for the first time. This will render new insights into the otherwise not-satisfying investigation and quest for functional important sequences of the Timeless protein, which anyway shows less homology to other yet characterized proteins.
Last but not least, we bothered with the question of the role of Shaggy on the circadian clock. The impact of an overexpression or downregulation of Shaggy on the pace of the clock is obvious and often described. The influence of Shaggy on Period and Timeless was also shown, but for the latter it is still controversially discussed. Some are talking of a Cryptochrome stabilization effect and rhythmic animals in constant light due to Shaggy overexpression, others show a decrease of Cryptochrome levels under these conditions. Also the constant light rhythmicity of the flies, as it was published, could not be repeated so far. We were able to expose the conditions behind the Cryptochrome stabilization and discuss possibilities for the phenomenon of rhythmicity under constant light due to Shaggy overexpression.
Cell growth and cell division are two interconnected yet distinct processes. Initiation of proliferation of central brain progenitor cells (neuroblasts) after the late embryonic quiescence stage requires cell growth, and maintenance of proper cell size is an important prerequisite for continuous larval neuroblast proliferation. Beside extrinsic nutrition signals, cell growth requires constant supply with functional ribosomes to maintain protein synthesis.
Mutations in the mushroom body miniature (mbm) gene were previously identified in a screen for structural brain mutants. This study focused on the function of the Mbm protein as a new nucleolar protein, which is the site of ribosome biogenesis. The comparison of the relative expression levels of Mbm and other nucleolar proteins in different cell types showed a pronounced expression of Mbm in neuroblasts, particularly in the fibrillar component of the nucleolus, suggesting that in addition to nucleolar components generally required for ribosome biogenesis, more neuroblast specific nucleolar factors exist. Mutations in mbm cause neuroblast proliferation defects but do not interfere with cell polarity, spindle orientation or asymmetry of cell division of neuroblasts. Instead a reduction in cell size was observed, which correlates with an impairment of ribosome biogenesis. In particular, loss of Mbm leads to the retention of the small ribosomal subunit in the nucleolus resulting in decreased protein synthesis. Interestingly, the defect in ribosome biogenesis was only observed in neuroblasts. Moreover, Mbm is apparently not required for cell size and proliferation control in wing imaginal disc and S2 cells supporting the idea of a neuroblast-specific function of Mbm.
Furthermore, the transcriptional regulation of the mbm gene and the functional relevance of posttranslational modifications were analyzed. Mbm is a transcriptional target of dMyc. A common feature of dMyc target genes is the presence of a conserved E-box sequence in their promoter regions. Two E-box motifs are found in the vicinity of the transcriptional start site of mbm. Gene reporter assays verified that only one of them mediates dMyc-dependent transcription. Complementary studies in flies showed that removal of dMyc function in neuroblasts resulted in reduced Mbm expression levels.
At the posttranslational level, Mbm becomes phosphorylated by protein kinase CK2. Six serine and threonine residues located in two acidic amino acid rich clusters in the C-terminal half of the Mbm protein were identified as CK2 phosphorylation sites.
Mutational analysis of these sites verified their importance for Mbm function in vivo and indicated that Mbm localization is controlled by CK2-mediated phosphorylation.
Although the molecular function of Mbm in ribosome biogenesis remains to be determined, the results of this study emphasize the specific role of Mbm in neuroblast ribosome biogenesis to control cell growth and proliferation.
Synaptic plasticity determines the development of functional neural circuits. It is widely accepted as the mechanism behind learning and memory. Among different forms of synaptic plasticity, Hebbian plasticity describes an activity-induced change in synaptic strength, caused by correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity. Additionally, Hebbian plasticity is characterised by input specificity, which means it takes place only at synapses, which participate in activity. Because of its correlative nature, Hebbian plasticity suggests itself as a mechanism behind associative learning.
Although it is commonly assumed that synaptic plasticity is closely linked to synaptic activity during development, the mechanistic understanding of this coupling is far from complete.
In the present study channelrhodopsin-2 was used to evoke activity in vivo, at the glutamatergic Drosophila neuromuscular junction. Remarkably, correlated pre- and postsynaptic stimulation led to increased incorporation of GluR-IIA-type glutamate receptors into postsynaptic receptor fields, thus boosting postsynaptic sensitivity. This phenomenon is input-specific.
Conversely, GluR-IIA was rapidly removed from synapses at which neurotransmitter release failed to evoke substantial postsynaptic depolarisation. This mechanism might be responsible to tame uncontrolled receptor field growth. Combining these results with developmental GluR-IIA dynamics leads to a comprehensive physiological concept, where Hebbian plasticity guides growth of postsynaptic receptor fields and sparse transmitter release stabilises receptor fields by preventing overgrowth.
Additionally, a novel mechanism of retrograde signaling was discovered, where direct postsynaptic channelrhodopsin-2 based stimulation, without involvement of presynaptic neurotransmitter release, leads to presynaptic depression. This phenomenon is reminiscent of a known retrograde homeostatic mechanism, of inverted polarity, where neurotransmitter release is upregulated, upon reduction of postsynaptic sensitivity.
p21-aktivierte Kinasen regulieren zahlreiche zelluläre Prozesse, die während der Entwicklung, aber auch beispielsweise bei der Krebsentstehung, von zentraler Bedeutung sind. Mbt, das einzige Typ II PAK-Protein von Drosophila melanogaster, spielt eine Rolle bei der Gehirnentwicklung. Eine Nullmutation von mbt, mbtP1, bildet kleinere Gehirne mit stark verkleinerten Pilzkörpern aus. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Funktion von Mbt in Neuroblasten untersucht. Mbt wurde als Teil des apikalen Proteinkomplexes in Neuroblasten des Zentralhirns nachgewiesen. Die apikale Lokalisation von Mbt ist Zellzyklus-abhängig und wird über Bindung an Cdc42 reguliert. Sie ist essentiell für die Funktion von Mbt in Neuroblasten. Trotz apikaler Mbt-Lokalisation in Neuroblasten zeigte die mbt Nullmutante keine Defekte des basalen Mechanismus der asymmetrischen Zellteilung. Mud zeigte geringfügige Lokalisationsveränderungen, die auf einen möglichen Einfluss von Mbt hinweisen. Obwohl PAKs zentrale Regulatoren des Zytoskeletts sind, zeigte die mbtP1 Mutante keine offensichtlichen Veränderungen des Aktin- und Tubulin-Zytoskeletts. Armadillo, ein Aktin-assoziiertes Mbt-Substrat, zeigte ebenfalls keine Lokalisationsveränderung in Neuroblasten. Mbt steuert jedoch die apikale Anreicherung von Cno, einem weiteren Aktin-assoziierten Protein, in Neuroblasten. Darüber hinaus beeinflusst Mbt die Zellgröße von Neuroblasten, sowie deren Proliferationspotenzial und Überleben. mbtP1 Neuroblasten sind kleiner als wildtypische Neuroblasten, haben ein geringeres Proliferationsvermögen und eine geringere Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit. Der Zelltod von Neuroblasten ist jedoch ein sekundärer Effekt. Daher kann eine Blockierung von Apoptose den adulten Pilzkörperphänotyp nicht retten. Signalwege, die Zellgröße und Proliferation regulieren, wurden auf eine Beteiligung von Mbt hin analysiert. mbtP1 induzierte leichte Effekte im Insulin-Signalweg und die Delokalisation eines nukleolären Proteins. Eine genetische Interaktion von mbtP1 mit Mutationen in Genen des klassischen MAPK-Signalweges identifzierte mbt als Positivregulator dieses Signalweges im Auge. Ein ähnlicher, schwächerer Effekt wurde auch bzgl. der Proliferation und Größe von Neuroblasten beobachtet. Eine 2D-Gelanalyse von Larvengehirnen identifizierte Bic und Hsp83 als mögliche von Mbt regulierte Proteine. Diese Arbeit charakterisiert eine bisher unbekannte Funktion der p21-aktivierten Kinase Mbt in neuronalen Stammzellen und liefert damit Ansatzpunkte für eine detaillierte Aufklärung der Funktionsmechanismen von Typ II PAKs bei der Regulation von Zellproliferation und Überleben
Learning and memory is considered to require synaptic plasticity at presynaptic specializations of neurons. Kenyon cells are the intrinsic neurons of the primary olfactory learning center in the brain of arthropods – the mushroom body neuropils. An olfactory mushroom body memory trace is supposed to be located at the presynapses of Kenyon cells. In the calyx, a sub-compartment of the mushroom bodies, Kenyon cell dendrites receive olfactory input provided via projection neurons. Their output synapses, however, were thought to reside exclusively along their axonal projections outside the calyx, in the mushroom body lobes. By means of high-resolution imaging and with novel transgenic tools, we showed that the calyx of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster also comprised Kenyon cell presynapses. At these presynapses, synaptic vesicles were present, which were capable of neurotransmitter release upon stimulation. In addition, the newly identified Kenyon cell presynapses shared similarities with most other presynapses: their active zones, the sites of vesicle fusion, contained the proteins Bruchpilot and Syd-1. These proteins are part of the cytomatrix at the active zone, a scaffold controlling synaptic vesicle endo- and exocytosis. Kenyon cell presynapses were present in γ- and α/β-type KCs but not in α/β-type Kenyon cells.
The newly identified Kenyon cell derived presynapses in the calyx are candidate sites for an olfactory associative memory trace. We hypothesize that, as in mammals, recurrent neuronal activity might operate for memory retrieval in the fly olfactory system.
Moreover, we present evidence for structural synaptic plasticity in the mushroom body calyx. This is the first demonstration of synaptic plasticity in the central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster. The volume of the mushroom body calyx can change according to changes in the environment. Also size and numbers of microglomeruli - sub-structures of the calyx, at which projection neurons contact Kenyon cells – can change. We investigated the synapses within the microglomeruli in detail by using new transgenic tools for visualizing presynaptic active zones and postsynaptic densities. Here, we could show, by disruption of the projection neuron - Kenyon cell circuit, that synapses of microglomeruli were subject to activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Projection neurons that could not generate action potentials compensated their functional limitation by increasing the number of active zones per microglomerulus. Moreover, they built more and enlarged microglomeruli. Our data provide clear evidence for an activity-induced, structural synaptic plasticity as well as for the activity-induced reorganization of the olfactory circuitry in the mushroom body calyx.
Animals need to evaluate their experiences in order to cope with new situations they encounter. This requires the ability of learning and memory. Drosophila melanogaster lends itself as an animal model for such research because elaborate genetic techniques are available. Drosphila larva even saves cellular redundancy in parts of its nervous system. My Thesis has two parts dealing with associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. Firstly, I tackle the question of odour processing in respect to odour quality and intensity. Secondly, by focusing on the evolutionarily conserved presynaptic protein Synapsin, olfactory learning on the cellular and molecular level is investigated. Part I.1. provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity in larval Drosophila by using four recognition-type experiments to result in a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. A further comparison of these combined perceived differences to published calculations of physico-chemical difference reveals a weak correlation between perceptual and physico-chemical similarity. Part I.2. focuses on how odour intensity is interpreted in the process of olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. First, the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities are described in order to choose odour intensities such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but tested for retention either with that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. A specificity of retention for the trained intensity is observed for all the odours used. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of associative olfactory memory trace formation. In part II.1. of the thesis, the cellular site and molecular mode of Synapsin function is investigated- an evolutionarily conserved, presynaptic vesicular phosphoprotein. On the cellular level, the study shows a Synapsin-dependent memory trace in the mushroom bodies, a third-order “cortical” brain region of the insects; on the molecular level, Synapsin engages as a downstream element of the AC-cAMP-PKA signalling cascade.
Is behaviour response or action? In this Thesis I study this question regarding a rather simple organism, the larva of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Despite its numerically simple brain and limited behavioural repertoire, it is nevertheless capable to accomplish surprisingly complex tasks. After association of an odour and a rewarding or punishing reinforcement signal, the learnt odour is able to retrieve the formed memory trace. However, the activated memory trace is not automatically turned into learned behaviour: Appetitive memory traces are behaviourally expressed only in absence of the rewarding tastant whereas aversive memory traces are behaviourally expressed in the presence of the punishing tastant. The ‘decision’ whether to behaviourally express a memory trace or not relies on a quantitive comparison between memory trace and current situation: only if the memory trace (after odour-sugar training) predicts a stronger sugar reward than currently present, animals show appetitive conditioned behaviour. Learned appetitive behaviour is best seen as active search for food – being pointless in the presence of (enough) food. Learned aversive behaviour, in turn, can be seen as escape from a punishment – being pointless in absence of punishment. Importantly, appetitive and aversive memory traces can be formed and retrieved independent from each other but also can, under appriate circumstances, summate to jointly organise conditioned behaviour. In contrast to learned behaviour, innate olfactory behaviour is not influenced by gustatory processing and vice versa. Thus, innate olfactory and gustatory behaviour is rather rigid and reflexive in nature, being executed almost regardless of other environmental cues. I suggest a behavioural circuit-model of chemosensory behaviour and the ‘decision’ process whether to behaviourally express a memory trace or not. This model reflects known components of the larval chemobehavioural circuit and provides clear hypotheses about the kinds of architecture to look for in the currently unknown parts of this circuit. The second chapter deals with gustatory perception and processing (especially of bitter substances). Quinine, the bitter tastant in tonic water and bitter lemon, is aversive for larvae, suppresses feeding behaviour and can act as aversive reinforcer in learning experiments. However, all three examined behaviours differ in their dose-effect dynamics, suggesting different molecular and cellular processing streams at some level. Innate choice behaviour, thought to be relatively reflexive and hard-wired, nevertheless can be influenced by the gustatory context. That is, attraction toward sweet tastants is decreased in presence of bitter tastants. The extent of this inhibitory effect depends on the concentration of both sweet and bitter tastant. Importantly, sweet tastants differ in their sensitivity to bitter interference, indicating a stimulus-specific mechanism. The molecular and cellular processes underlying the inhibitory effect of bitter tastants are unknown, but the behavioural results presented here provide a framework to further investigate interactions of gustatory processing streams.
In this thesis the Drosophila mutant loechrig (loe), that shows progressive degeneration of the nervous system, is further described. Loe is missing a neuronal isoform of the protein kinase AMPK γ subunit (AMP-activated protein kinase- also known as SNF4Aγ) The heterotrimeric AMPK controls the energy level of the cell, which requires constant monitoring of the ATP/AMP levels. It is activated by low energy levels and metabolic insults like oxygen starvation and regulates multiple important signal pathways that control cell metabolism. Still, its role in neuronal survival is unclear. One of AMPK’s downstream targets is HMGR (hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA- reductase), a key enzyme in cholesterol and isoprenoid synthesis. It has been shown that manipulating the levels of HMGR affects the severity of the neurodegenerative phenotype in loe. Whereas the regulatory role of AMPK on HMGR is conserved in Drosophila, insects cannot synthesize cholesterol de novo. However, the synthesis of isoprenoids is a pathway that is evolutionarily conserved between vertebrates and insects. Isoprenylation of target proteins like small G-proteins provides a hydrophobic anchor that allows the association of these proteins with membranes and following activation. This thesis shows that the loe mutation interferes with the prenylation of Rho1 and the regulation of the LIM kinase pathway, which plays an important role in actin turnover and axonal outgrowth. The results suggest that the mutation in LOE, causes hyperactivity of the isoprenoid synthesis pathway, which leads to increased farnesylation of RHO1 and therefore higher levels of phospho-cofilin. A mutation in Rho1 improves the neurodegenerative phenotype and life span. The increased inactive cofilin amount in loe leads to an up regulation of filamentous actin. Actin is involved in neuronal outgrowth and experiments analyzing loe neurons gave valuable insights into a possible role of AMPK and accordingly actin on neurite growth and stability. It was demonstrated that neurons derived from loe mutants exhibit reduces axonal transport suggesting that changes in the cytoskeletal network caused by the effect of loe on the Rho1 pathway lead to disruptions in axonal transport and subsequent neuronal death. It also shows that actin is not only involved in neuronal outgrowth, its also important in maintenance of neurons, suggesting that interference with actin dynamics leads to progressive degeneration of neurons. Together, these results further support the importance of AMPK in neuronal function and survival and provide a novel functional mechanisms how alterations in AMPK can cause neuronal degeneration
ATP dependent chromatin remodeling complexes are multifactorial complexes that utilize the energy of ATP to rearrange the chromatin structure. The changes in chromatin structure lead to either increased or decreased DNA accessibility. SWI/SNF is one of such complex. The SWI/SNF complex is involved in both transcription activation and transcription repression. The ATPase subunit of SWI/SNF is called SWI2/SNF2 in yeast and Brahma, Brm, in Drosophila melanogaster. In mammals there are two paralogs of the ATPase subunit, Brm and Brg1. Recent studies have shown that the human Brm is involved in the regulation of alternative splicing. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Brm in pre-mRNA processing. The model systems used were Chironomus tentans, well suited for in situ studies and D. melanogaster, known for its full genome information. Immunofluorescent staining of the polytene chromosome indicated that Brm protein of C. tentans, ctBrm, is associated with several gene loci including the Balbiani ring (BR) puffs. Mapping the distribution of ctBrm along the BR genes by both immuno-electron microscopy and chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that ctBrm is widely distributed along the BR genes. The results also show that a fraction of ctBrm is associated with the nascent BR pre-mRNP. Biochemical fractionation experiments confirmed the association of Brm with the RNP fractions, not only in C. tentans but also in D. melanogaster and in HeLa cells. Microarray hybridization experiments performed on S2 cells depleted of either dBrm or other SWI/SNF subunits show that Brm affects alternative splicing and 3´ end formation. These results indicated that BRM affects pre-mRNA processing as a component of SWI/SNF complexes. 1
Understanding of complex interactions and events in a nervous system, leading from the molecular level up to certain behavioural patterns calls for interdisciplinary interactions of various research areas. The goal of the presented work is to achieve such an interdisciplinary approach to study and manipulate animal behaviour and its underlying mechanisms. Optical in vivo imaging is a new constantly evolving method, allowing one to study not only the local but also wide reaching activity in the nervous system. Due to ease of its genetic accessibility Drosophila melanogaster represents an extraordinary experimental organism to utilize not only imaging but also various optogenetic techniques to study the neuronal underpinnings of behaviour. In this study four genetically encoded sensors were used to investigate the temporal dynamics of cAMP concentration changes in the horizontal lobes of the mushroom body, a brain area important for learning and memory, in response to various physiological and pharmacological stimuli. Several transgenic lines with various genomic insertion sites for the sensor constructs Epac1, Epac2, Epac2K390E and HCN2 were screened for the best signal quality, one line was selected for further experiments. The in vivo functionality of the sensor was assessed via pharmacological application of 8-bromo-cAMP as well as Forskolin, a substance stimulating cAMP producing adenylyl cyclases. This was followed by recording of the cAMP dynamics in response to the application of dopamine and octopamine, as well as to the presentation of electric shock, odorants or a simulated olfactory signal, induced by acetylcholine application to the observed brain area. In addition the interaction between the shock and the simulated olfactory signal by simultaneous presentation of both stimuli was studied. Preliminary results are supporting a coincidence detection mechanism at the level of the adenylyl cyclase as postulated by the present model for classical olfactory conditioning. In a second series of experiments an effort was made to selecticvely activate a subset of neurons via the optogenetic tool Channelrhodopsin (ChR2). This was achieved by recording the behaviour of the fly in a walking ball paradigm. A new method was developed to analyse the walking behaviour of the animal whose brain was made optically accessible via a dissection technique, as used for imaging, thus allowing one to target selected brain areas. Using the Gal4-UAS system the protocerebral bridge, a substructure of the central complex, was highlighted by expressing the ChR2 tagged by fluorescent protein EYFP. First behavioural recordings of such specially prepared animals were made. Lastly a new experimental paradigm for single animal conditioning was developed (Shock Box). Its design is based on the established Heat Box paradigm, however in addition to spatial and operant conditioning available in the Heat Box, the design of the new paradigm allows one to set up experiments to study classical and semioperant olfactory conditioning, as well as semioperant place learning and operant no idleness experiments. First experiments involving place learning were successfully performed in the new apparatus.
For a large fraction of the proteins expressed in the human brain only the primary structure is known from the genome project. Proteins conserved in evolution can be studied in genetic models such as Drosophila. In this doctoral thesis monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from the Wuerzburg Hybridoma library are produced and characterized with the aim to identify the target antigen. The mAb ab52 was found to be an IgM which recognized a cytosolic protein of Mr ~110 kDa on Western blots. The antigen was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) as a single distinct spot. Mass spectrometric analysis of this spot revealed EPS-15 (epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate clone 15) to be a strong candidate. Another mAb from the library, aa2, was already found to recognize EPS-15, and comparison of the signal of both mAbs on Western blots of 1D and 2D electrophoretic separations revealed similar patterns, hence indicating that both antigens could represent the same protein. Finally absence of the wild-type signal in homozygous Eps15 mutants in a Western blot with ab52 confirmed the ab52 antigen to be EPS-15. Thus both the mAbs aa2 and ab52 recognize the Drosophila homologue of EPS-15. The mAb aa2, being an IgG, is more suitable for applications like immunoprecipitation (IP). It has already been submitted to the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB) to be easily available for the entire research community. The mAb na21 was also found to be an IgM. It recognizes a membrane associated antigen of Mr ~10 kDa on Western blots. Due to the membrane associated nature of the protein, it was not possible to resolve it by 2DE and due to the IgM nature of the mAb it was not possible to enrich the antigen by IP. Preliminary attempts to biochemically purify the endogenously expressed protein from the tissue, gave promising results but could not be completed due to lack of time. Thus biochemical purification of the protein seems possible in order to facilitate its identification by mass spectrometry. Several other mAbs were studied for their staining pattern on cryosections and whole mounts of Drosophila brains. However, many of these mAbs stained very few structures in the brain, which indicated that only a very limited amount of protein would be available as starting material. Because these antibodies did not produce signals on Western blots, which made it impossible to enrich the antigens by electrophoretic methods, we did not attempt their purification. However, the specific localization of these proteins makes them highly interesting and calls for their further characterization, as they may play a highly specialized role in the development and/or function of the neural circuits they are present in. The purification and identification of such low expression proteins would need novel methods of enrichment of the stained structures.
According to a changing environment it is crucial for animals to make experience and learn about it. Sensing, integrating and learning to associate different kinds of modalities enables animals to expect future events and to adjust behavior in the way, expected as the most profitable. Complex processes as memory formation and storage make it necessary to investigate learning and memory on different levels. In this context Drosophila melanogaster represents a powerful model organism. As the adult brain of the fly is still quite complex, I chose the third instar larva as model - the more simple the system, the easier to isolate single, fundamental principles of learning. In this thesis I addressed several kinds of questions on different mechanism of olfactory associative and synaptic plasiticity in Drosophila larvae. I focused on short-term memory throughout my thesis. First, investigating larval learning on behavioral level, I developed a one-odor paradigm for olfactory associative conditioning. This enables to estimate the learnability of single odors, reduces the complexity of the task and simplify analyses of "learning mutants". It further allows to balance learnability of odors for generalization-type experiments to describe the olfactory "coding space". Furthermore I could show that innate attractiveness and learnability can be dissociated and found finally that paired presentation of a given odor with reward increase performance, whereas unpaired presentations of these two stimuli decrease performance, indicating that larva are able to learn about the presence as well as about the absence of a reward. Second, on behavioral level, together with Thomas Niewalda and colleagues we focussed on salt processing in the context of choice, feeding and learning. Salt is required in several physiological processes, but can neither be synthesized nor stored. Various salt concentrations shift the valence from attraction to repulsion in reflexive behaviour. Interestingly, the reinforcing effect of salt in learning is shifted by more than one order of magnitude toward higher concentrations. Thus, the input pathways for gustatory behavior appear to be more sensitive than the ones supporting gustatory reinforcement, which is may be due to the dissociation of the reflexive and the reinforcing signalling pathways of salt. Third, in cooperation with Michael Schleyer we performed a series of behavioral gustatory, olfactory preference tests and larval learning experiments. Based on the available neuroanatomical and behavioral data we propose a model regarding chemosensory processing, odor-tastant memory trace formation and the 'decision' like process. It incorporates putative sites of interaction between olfactory and gustatory pathways during the establishment as well as behavioral expression of odor-tastant memory. We claim that innate olfactory behavior is responsive in nature and suggest that associative conditioned behavior is not a simple substitution like process, but driven more likely by the expectation of its outcome. Fourth, together with Birgit Michels and colleagues we investigated the cellular site and molecular mode of Synapsin, an evolutionarily conserved, presynaptic vesicular phosphoprotein and its action in larval learning. We confirmed a previously described learning impairment upon loss of Synapsin. We localized this Synapsin dependent memory trace in the mushroom bodies, a third-order "cortical" brain region, and could further show on molecular level, that Synapsin is as a downstream element of the AC-cAMP-PKA signalling cascade. This study provides a comprehensive chain of explanation from the molecular level to an associative behavioral change. Fifth, in the main part of my thesis I focused on molecular level on another synaptic protein, the Synapse associated protein of 47kDa (Sap47) and its role in larval behavior. As a member of a phylogenetically conserved gene family of hitherto unknown function. It is localized throughout the whole neuropil of larval brains and associated with presynaptic vesicles. Upon loss of Sap47 larvae exhibit normal sensory detection of the to-be-associated stimuli as well as normal motor performance and basic synaptic transmission. Interestingly, short-term plasticity is distorted and odorant–tastant associative learning ability is reduced. This defect in associative function could be rescued by restoring Sap47 expression. Therefore, this report is the first to suggest a function for Sap47 and specifically argues that Sap47 is required for synaptic as well as for behavioral plasticity in Drosophila larva. This prompts the question whether its homologs are required for synaptic and behavioral plasticity also in other species. Further in the last part of my thesis I contributed to the study of Ayse Yarali. Her central topic was the role of the White protein in punishment and relief learning in adult flies. Whereas stimuli that precede shock during training are subsequently avoided as predictors for punishment, stimuli that follow shock during training are later on approached, as they predict relief. Concerning the loss of White we report that pain-relief learning as well as punishment learning is changed. My contribution was a comparison between wild type and the white1118 mutant larvae in odor-reward learning. It turned out that a loss of White has no effect on larval odorant-tastant learning. This study, regarding painrelief learning provides the very first hints concerning the genetic determinants of this form of learning.
All animals learn in order to cope with challenges imposed on them by their environment. This is true also for both larval and adult fruit flies as exemplified in pavlovian conditioning. The focus of this Thesis is on various aspects of the fruit flies learning ability. My main project deals with two types of learning which we call punishment-learning and pain-relief learning. Punishment learning happens when fruit flies are exposed to an odour which is followed by electric shock. After such training, flies have learned that that odour signals pain and consequently will avoid it in the future. If the sequence of the two stimuli is reversed such that odour follows shock, flies learn the odour as a signal for relief and will later on approach it. I first report a series of experiments investigating qualitative and parametric features of relief-learning; I find that (i) relief learning does result from true associative conditioning, (ii) it requires a relatively high number of training trials, (iii) context-shock training is ineffective for subsequent shock-odour learning. A further question is whether punishment-learning and pain-relief learning share genetic determinants. In terms of genetics, I test a synapsin mutant strain, which lacks all Synapsin protein, in punishment and relief-learning. Punishment learning is significantly reduced, and relief-learning is abolished. Pan-neuronal RNAi-mediated knock-down of Synapsin results in mutant-like phenotypes, confirming the attribution of the phenotype to lack of Synapsin. Also, a rescue of Synapsin in the mushroom body of syn97 mutants restores both punishment- and relief-learning fully, suggesting the sufficiency of Synapsin in the mushroom body for both these kinds of learning. I also elucidate the relationship between perception and physiology in adult fruit flies. I use odour-shock conditioning experiments to identify degrees of similarity between odours; I find that those similarity measures are consistent across generalization and discrimination tasks of diverse difficulty. Then, as collaborator of T. Völler and A. Fiala, I investigate how such behavioural similarity/dissimilarity is reflected at the physiological level. I combine the behaviour data with calcium imaging data obtained by measuring the activity patterns of those odours in either the sensory neurons or the projection neurons at the antennal lobe. Our interpretation of the results is that the odours perceptual similarity is organized by antennal lobe interneurons. In another project I investigate the effect of gustatory stimuli on reflexive behaviour as well as their role as reinforcer in larval learning. Drosophila larvae greatly alter their behaviour in presence of sodium chloride. Increasing salt concentration modulates choice behaviour from weakly appetitive to strongly aversive. A similar concentration-behaviour function is also found for feeding: larval feeding is slightly enhanced in presence of low salt concentrations, and strongly decreased in the presence of high salt concentrations. Regarding learning, relatively weak salt concentrations function as appetitive reinforcer, whereas high salt concentrations function as aversive reinforcer. Interestingly, the behaviour-concentration curves are shifted towards higher concentrations from reflexive behaviour (choice behaviour, feeding) as compared to associative learning. This dissociation may reflect a different sensitivity in the respective sensory-motor circuitry.
This thesis consists of three major chapters, each of which has been separately published or under the process for publication. The first chapter is about anatomical characterization of the mushroom body of adult Drosophila melanogaster. The mushroom body is the center for olfactory learning and many other functions in the insect brains. The functions of the mushroom body have been studied by utilizing the GAL4/UAS gene expression system. The present study characterized the expression patterns of the commonly used GAL4 drivers for the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, Kenyon cells. Thereby, we revealed the numerical composition of the different types of Kenyon cells and found one subtype of the Kenyon cells that have not been described. The second and third chapters together demonstrate that the multiple types of dopaminergic neurons mediate the aversive reinforcement signals to the mushroom body. They induce the parallel memory traces that constitute the different temporal domains of the aversive odor memory. In prior to these chapters, “General introduction and discussion” section reviews and discuss about the current understanding of neuronal circuit for olfactory learning in Drosophila.
Synapsen als Stellen der Kommunikation zwischen Neuronen besitzen spezialisierte Bereiche – Aktive Zonen (AZs) genannt –, die aus einem hoch komplexen Netzwerk von Proteinen aufgebaut sind und die Maschinerie für den Prozess der Neurotransmitter-Ausschüttung und das Vesikel-Recycling beinhalten. In Drosophila ist das Protein Bruchpilot (BRP) ein wichtiger Baustein für die T-förmigen Bänder („T-Bars“) der präsynaptischen Aktiven Zonen. BRP ist notwendig für eine intakte Struktur der Aktiven Zone und eine normale Exocytose von Neurotransmitter-Vesikeln. Auf der Suche nach Mutationen, welche die Verteilung von Bruchpilot im Gewebe beeinträchtigen, wurde eine P-Element-Insertion im Gen CG11489 an der Position 79D identifiziert, welches eine Kinase kodiert, die einen hohen Grad an Homologie zur Familie der SR Proteinkinasen (SRPKs) von Säugern aufweist. Die Mitglieder dieser Familie zeichnen sich durch eine evolutionär hoch konservierte zweigeteilte Kinasedomäne aus, die durch eine nicht konservierte Spacer-Sequenz unterbrochen ist. SRPKs phosphorylieren SR-Proteine, die zu einer evolutionär hoch konservierten Familie Serin/Arginin-reicher Spleißfaktoren gehören und konstitutive sowie alternative Spleißprozesse steuern und damit auf post-transkriptioneller Ebene die Genexpression regulieren. Mutation des Srpk79D-Gens durch die P-Element-Insertion (Srpk79DP1) oder eine Deletion im Gen (Srpk79DVN Nullmutante) führt zu auffälligen BRP-Akkumulationen in larvalen und adulten Nerven. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass diese BRP-Akkumulationen auf Ultrastruktur-Ebene ausgedehnten axonalen Agglomeraten elektronendichter Bänder entsprechen und von klaren Vesikeln umgeben sind. Charakterisierung durch Immuno-Elektronenmikroskopie ergab, dass diese Strukturen BRP-immunoreaktiv sind. Um die Bildung BRP-enthaltender Agglomerate in Axonen zu verhindern und damit eine intakte Gehirnfunktion zu gewährleisten, scheint die SRPK79D nur auf niedrigem Niveau exprimiert zu werden, da die endogene Kinase mit verschiedenen Antikörpern nicht nachweisbar war. Wie in anderen Arbeiten gezeigt werden konnte, ist die Expression der PB-, PC- oder PF-Isoform der vier möglichen SRPK79D-Varianten, die durch alternativen Transkriptionsstart in Exon eins beziehungsweise drei und alternatives Spleißen von Exon sieben zustande kommen, zur Rettung des Phänotyps der BRP-Akkumulation im Srpk79DVN Nullmutanten-Hintergrund ausreichend. Zur Charakterisierung der Rescue-Eigenschaften der SRPK79D-PE-Isoform wurde mit der Klonierung der cDNA in einen UAS-Vektor begonnen. Offenbar beruht die Bildung der axonalen BRP-Agglomerate nicht auf einer Überexpression von BRP in den betroffenen Neuronen, denn auch bei reduzierter Expression des BRP-Proteins im Srpk79DVN Nullmutanten-Hintergrund entstehen die BRP-Agglomerate. In Köpfen der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante ist die Gesamtmenge an Bruchpilot-Protein im Vergleich zum Wildtyp nicht deutlich verändert. Auch die auf Protein-Ebene untersuchte Expression der verschiedenen Isoformen der präsynaptischen Proteine Synapsin, Sap47 und CSP weicht in der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante nicht wesentlich von der Wildtyp-Situation ab, sodass sich keine Hinweise auf verändertes Spleißen der entsprechenden prä-mRNAs ergeben. Jedes der sieben bekannten SR-Proteine von Drosophila ist ein potentielles Zielprotein der SRPK79D. Knock-down-Experimente für die drei hier untersuchten SR-Proteine SC35, X16/9G8 und B52/SRp55 im gesamten Nervensystem durch RNA-Interferenz zeigten allerdings keinen Effekt auf die Verteilung von BRP im Gewebe. Hinsichtlich der Flugfähigkeit der Tiere hat die Srpk79DVN Nullmutation keinen additiven Effekt zum Knock-down des BRP-Proteins, denn die Doppelmutanten zeigten bei der Bestimmung des Anteils an flugunfähigen Tieren vergleichbare Werte wie die Einzelmutanten, die entweder die Nullmutation im Srpk79D-Gen trugen, oder BRP reduziert exprimierten. Vermutlich sind Bruchpilot und die SR Proteinkinase 79D somit Teil desselben Signalwegs. Durch Doppelfärbungen mit Antikörpern gegen BRP und CAPA-Peptide wurde abschließend entdeckt, dass Bruchpilot auch im Median- und Transvers-Nervensystem (MeN/TVN) von Drosophila zu finden ist, welche die Neurohämal-Organe beherbergen. Aufgabe dieser Organe ist die Speicherung und Ausschüttung von Neuropeptid-Hormonen. Daher ist zu vermuten, dass das BRP-Protein neben Funktionen bei der Neurotransmitter-Exocytose möglicherweise eine Rolle bei der Ausschüttung von Neuropeptiden spielt. Anders als in den Axonen der larvalen Segmental- und Intersegmentalnerven der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante, die charakteristische BRP-Agglomerate aufweisen, hat die Mutation des Srpk79D-Gens in den Axonen der Va-Neurone, die das MeN/TVN-System bilden, keinen sichtbaren Effekt auf die Verteilung von Brp, denn das Muster bei Färbung gegen BRP weist keine deutlichen Veränderungen zum Wildtyp auf.
Auf der Suche nach Mutanten mit einer vom Wildtyp abweichenden Verteilung des Aktive Zone-Proteins Bruchpilot wurde die Serin/Arginin-Proteinkinase SRPK79D identifiziert. Hier zeigte sich, dass die Mutation im Srpk79D-Gen zu einer Agglomeration von Bruchpilot in den larvalen segmentalen und intersegmentalen Nerven führt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte die SRPK79D genauer charakterisiert werden. Nach Präadsorptionen und Affinitätsreinigungen von in einer früheren Arbeit erzeugten Antiseren, gelang es die Lokalisation der überexprimierten SRPK79D-GFP-Isoformen zu bestimmen. Dabei zeigte sich, dass keines der Antiseren die endogene Kinase im Western Blot oder immunhistocheimisch detektieren konnte. Dies legt den Schluss nahe, dass die Expression der SRPK79D in einer geringen Konzentration erfolgt. Es war jedoch möglich die endogene SRPK79D-PC-Isoform mittels einer Immunpräzipitation soweit anzureichern, dass sie im Western Blot nachweisbar war. Für die SRPK79D-PB-Isoform gelang dies allerdings nicht. Anhand von larvalen Nerv-Muskel-Präparaten konnte gezeigt werden, dass die panneural überexprimierte SRPK79D-PC-GFP-Isoform an die Aktiven Zone transportiert wird und dort mit Bruchpilot, sowie den Interaktionspartnern von Bruchpilot Liprin-α und Rab3 kolokalisiert. Außerdem liegt sie diffus im Zytoplasma von neuronalen Zellkörpern vor. In adulten Gehirnen lokalisiert die transgen überexprimierte SRPK79D-PC-GFP im Fanshaped body, Ringkomplex und in neuronalen Zellkörpern. Die panneural überexprimierte SRPK79D-PB-GFP-Isoform liegt im larvalen und adulten Gehirn lokal im Zytoplasma der Perikaryen akkumuliert vor und wird nicht an die Aktive Zone transportiert. Das PB-Antiserum erkennt im adulten Gehirn neuronale Zellkörper und das Neuropil in der Calyxregion der Pilzkörper. Immunhistochemische Färbungen von larvalen Nerv-Muskel-Präparaten mit verschiedenen Antikörpern gegen neuronale Proteine belegen, dass die Agglomerate in der Srpk79D-Mutante für Bruchpilot spezifisch sind. Es konnten bisher keine weiteren Komponenten der Agglomerate detektiert werden. Auch ein genereller axonaler Defekt konnte durch Färbungen gegen CSP, Synaptotagmin und Experimenten mit dem Mitochondrienfarbstoff MitoTracker® FM Green ausgeschlossen werden. Die quantitative Auswertung der Präparate zeigte, dass die Morphologie der synaptischen Boutons und die Zahl der Aktiven Zonen durch die Mutation im Srpk79D-Gen nicht beeinflusst werden. Um gesicherte Kenntnis darüber zu erlangen, ob die Mutation im Srpk79D-Gen die beobachteten Phänotypen verursacht, wurden Rettungsexperimente durchgeführt. Es konnte sowohl für das hypomorphe Srpk79DP1-Allel, als auch für die Nullmutante Srpk79DVN eine nahezu vollständige Rettung des Agglomerat-Phänotyps mit der panneural exprimierten SRPK79D-PF- oder der SRPK79D-PB-Isoform erreicht werden. Aus diesen Ergebnissen folgt, dass beide Isoformen der SRPK79D in der Lage sind den Bruchpilot-Agglomerat-Phänotyp zu retten, die Rettung der Verhaltensdefizite jedoch alle Isoformgruppen benötigen. Um zu untersuchen, ob der Agglomerations-Phänotyp der Srpk79D-Mutanten auf einer Überexpression des Bruchpilotgens oder auf Fehlspleißen seiner prä-mRNA beruht, wurden Immunpräzipitationen, semiquantitative RT-PCRs und Real Time-PCRs durchgeführt. Ausgehend von den Ergebnissen kann eine mögliche Überexpression bzw. Spleißdefekte von Bruchpilot weitgehend ausgeschlossen werden. Die simultane Überexpression von SRPK79D und Bruchpilot konnte den Phänotyp der Bruchpilot-Überexpression nicht retten. Anhand der stimulated emission depletion-Mikroskopie konnte gezeigt werden, dass die gebildeten Agglomerate das charakteristische Donut-förmige Muster der T-bars zeigen und wahrscheinlich als fusionierte Ketten von T-bars in den larvalen Nerven vorliegen. Beim in vivo Imaging Versuch konnte demonstriert werden, dass das verkürzte Bruchpilot-D3-Strawberry in die Bruchpilot-Agglomerate der Srpk79D-Nullmutante eingebaut wird und dass größere Agglomerate unbewegt im Nerv verharren. Der anterograde und retrograde Transport kleinerer Agglomerate konnte verzeichnet werden. Bei CytoTrap-Yeast-two-hybrid-Experimenten konnten für die SRPK79D-PB Isoform vier potentielle Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden: das Hitzeschockprotein Hsp70Bbb, die mitochondriale NADH-Dehydrogenase mt:ND5, das large ribosomal RNA Gen in Mitochondrien und das am Spleißen beteiligte Protein 1.3CC/Caper. Die Sequenzierung zeigte, dass nur das letzte Exon von Caper im pMyr-Vektor vorliegt. Der für die PC-Isoform durchgeführte CytoTrap-Versuch ergab nur Temperatur-Revertanten. SR-Proteinkinasen phosphorylieren die RS-Domäne von SR-Proteinen und sind dadurch an der Regulation des konstitutiven und alternativen Spleißens beteiligt. Somit stellen die acht identifizierten SR-Proteine in Drosophila potentielle Interaktionspartner der SRPK79D dar. Die durch RNAi-vermittelte Reduktion von sieben SR-Proteinen führte zu keiner Agglomeration von Bruchpilot. Jedoch führte die RNAi-vermittelte Reduktion des SR-Proteins Spleißfaktor 2 (SF2) zu kleineren Bruchpilot-Agglomeraten in den axonalen Nerven. SF2 ist selbst kein Bestandteil der Agglomerate der Srpk79D-Nullmutante. Die Überexpression von SF2 führt wahrscheinlich zu einem axonalen Transportdefekt, wie die Färbung gegen das Cysteine string protein zeigte. Weiterhin führt die Überexpression zu einer Akkumulation von SF2 in larvalen Axonen und im adulten Gehirn der Fliegen. SF2 ist nicht nur in Zellkernen sämtlicher Zellen nachweisbar, sondern es konnte auch ein spezifisches Signal im subsynaptischen Retikulum der Postsynapse detektiert werden, wie die Färbungen gegen Disc large bestätigten.
Neuroanatomical data in fly brain research are mostly available as spatial gene expression patterns of genetically distinct fly strains. The Drosophila standard brain, which was developed in the past to provide a reference coordinate system, can be used to integrate these data. Working with the standard brain requires advanced image processing methods, including visualisation, segmentation and registration. The previously published VIB Protocol addressed the problem of image registration. Unfortunately, its usage was severely limited by the necessity of manually labelling a predefined set of neuropils in the brain images at hand. In this work I present novel tools to facilitate the work with the Drosophila standard brain. These tools are integrated in a well-known open-source image processing framework which can potentially serve as a common platform for image analysis in the neuroanatomical research community: ImageJ. In particular, a hardware-accelerated 3D visualisation framework was developed for ImageJ which extends its limited 3D visualisation capabilities. It is used for the development of a novel semi-automatic segmentation method, which implements automatic surface growing based on user-provided seed points. Template surfaces, incorporated with a modified variant of an active surface model, complement the segmentation. An automatic nonrigid warping algorithm is applied, based on point correspondences established through the extracted surfaces. Finally, I show how the individual steps can be fully automated, and demonstrate its application for the successful registration of fly brain images. The new tools are freely available as ImageJ plugins. I compare the results obtained by the introduced methods with the output of the VIB Protocol and conclude that our methods reduce the required effort five to ten fold. Furthermore, reproducibility and accuracy are enhanced using the proposed tools.
In this thesis we have used Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism to investigate proteins and their putative interacting partners that are directly or indirectly involved in the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse. We have used molecular techniques to investigate conserved synaptic proteins, synapsin and synapse associated protein of 47 kD (SAP47), and a putative interaction partner of SAP47, tubulin binding chaperone E-like (TBCEL). SAP47 and synapsins are highly conserved synaptic vesicle associated proteins in Drosophila melanogaster. To further investigate the role and function of Sap47 and Syn genes, we had earlier generated the null mutants by P-element mutagenesis (Funk et al., 2004; Godenschwege et al., 2004). Western blots and ELISA of brain homogenates from Sap47156 null mutants showed the presence of up-regulated phospho-synapsin in comparison to wild-type (CS) and the presence of up-regulated phospho-synapsin was partially abolished when a pan-neuronal rescue of SAP47 was performed by the Gal4- UAS technique. Thus, the results suggest a qualitative and quantitative modulation of synapsin by SAP47. At the transcript level, we did not observe any difference in content of Syn transcript in Sap47156 and wild-type CS flies. The question of a direct molecular interaction between SAP47 and synapsin was investigated by co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) experiments and we did not find any stable interactions under the several IP conditions we tested. The possibility of Sap47 as a modifier of Syn at the genetic level was investigated by generating and testing homozygous double null mutants of Sap47 and Syn. The Syn97, Sap47156 double mutants are viable but have a reduced life span and decreased locomotion when compared to CS. In 2D-PAGE analysis of synapsins we identified trains of spots corresponding to synapsins, suggesting that synapsin has several isoforms and each one of them is posttranslationally modified. In an analysis by Blue native-SDS-PAGE (BN-SDS-2D- PAGE) and Western blot we observed synapsin and SAP47 signals to be present at 700-900 kDa and 200-250 kDa, respectively, suggesting that they are part of large but different complexes. We also report the possibility of Drosophila synapsin forming homo- and heteromultimers, which has also been reported for synapsins of vertebrates. In parallel to the above experiments, phosphorylation of synapsins in Drosophila was studied by IP techniques followed by 1D-SDS gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry (in collaboration with S. Heo and G. Lubec). We identified and verified 5 unique phosphorylation sites in Drosophila synapsin from our MS analysis. Apart from phosphorylation modifications we identified several other PTMs which have not been verified. The significance of these phosphorylations and other identified PTMs needs to be investigated further and their implications for synapsin function and Drosophila behavior has to be elucidated by further experiments. In a collaborative project with S. Kneitz and N. Nuwal, we investigated the effects of Sap156 and Syn97 mutations by performing a whole Drosophila transcriptome microarray analysis of the individual null mutants and the double mutants (V2 and V3). We obtained several candidates which were significantly altered in the mutants. These genes need to be investigated further to elucidate their interactions with Sap47 and Syn. In another project, we investigated the role and function of Drosophila tubulin- binding chaperone E-like (Tbcel, CG12214). The TBCEL protein has high homology to vertebrate TBCE-like (or E-like) which has high sequence similarity to tubulin-binding chaperone E (TBCE) (hence the name TBCE-Like). We generated an anti-TBCEL polyclonal antiserum (in collaboration with G. Krohne). According to flybase, the Tbcel gene has only one exon and codes for two different transcripts by alternative transcription start sites. The longer transcript RB is present only in males whereas the shorter transcript RA is present only in females. In order to study the gene function we performed P- element jump-out mutagenesis to generate deletion mutants. We used the NP4786 (NP) stock which has a P(GawB) insertion in the 5’ UTR of the Tbcel gene. NP4786 flies are homozygous lethal due to a second-site lethality as the flies are viable over a deficiency (Df) chromosome (a deletion of genomic region spanning the Tbcel gene and other upstream and downstream genes). We performed the P-element mutagenesis twice. In the first trial we obtained only revertants and the second experiment is still in progress. In the second attempt, jump-out was performed over the deficiency chromosome to prevent homologous chromosome mediated double stranded DNA repair. During the second mutagenesis an insertion stock G18151 became available. These flies had a P-element insertion in the open reading frame (ORF) of the Tbcel gene but was homozygous viable. Western blots of fresh tissue homogenates of NP/Df and G18151 flies probed with anti-TBCEL antiserum showed no TBCEL signal, suggesting that these flies are Tbcel null mutants. We used these flies for further immunohistochemical analyses and found that TBCEL is specifically expressed in the cytoplasm of cyst cells of the testes and is associated with the tubulin of spermatid tails in wild-type CS, whereas in NP/Df and G18151 flies the TBCEL staining in the cyst cells was absent and there was a disruption of actin investment cones. We also found enrichment of TBCEL staining around the actin investment cone. These results are also supported by the observation that the enhancer trap expression of the NP4786 line is localised to the cyst cells, similar to TBCEL expression. Also, male fertility of NP/Df and G18151 flies was tested and they were found to be sterile with few escapers. Thus, these results suggest that TBCEL is involved in Drosophila spermatogenesis with a possible role in the spermatid elongation and individualisation process.
PART I Animals need to constantly evaluate their external environment in order to survive. In some cases the internal state of the animal changes to cope with it’s surrounding. In our study we wanted to investigate the role of amines in modulating internal states of Drosophila. We have designed a behavioral paradigm where the flies are fixed in space but can walk on a small styrofoam ball suspended by a gentle stream of air. The walking activity of flies was used as behavioral readout. PART I Animals need to constantly evaluate their external environment in order to survive. In some cases the internal state of the animal changes to cope with it’s surrounding. In our study we wanted to investigate the role of amines in modulating internal states of Drosophila. We have designed a behavioral paradigm where the flies are fixed in space but can walk on a small styrofoam ball suspended by a gentle stream of air. The walking activity of flies was used as behavioral readout. An operant training paradigm was established by coupling one of the walking directions to incidence of heat punishment. We observed that animals quickly realized the contingency of punishment with walking direction and avoided walking in the punished direction in the presence of punishment, but did not continue walking in the unpunished direction in the absence of the punishment. This would indicate that the flies do not form a memory for the punished direction or rapidly erase it under new conditions. On having established the paradigm with heat punishment we have attempted to activate selected subsets of neuronal populations of Drosophila while they were walking on the ball. The selective activation of neurons was achieved by expressing the light-activated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) using the Gal4-UAS system and coupling the unidirectional walking of the animals on the ball with the incidence of blue light required to activate the channels and depolarize the neurons. The feasibility of this approach was tested by light-activating sugar sensitive gustatory receptor neurons expressing ChR2, we found that when the light was actuated the flies preferred to turn in one direction the optically “rewarded” direction. Next we similarly activated different subsets of aminergic neurons. We observed that in our setup animals avoided to turn in the direction which was coupled to activation of dopaminergic neurons indicating that release of dopamine is disliked by the animals. This is in accordance with associative learning experiments where dopamine is believed to underlie the formation of an association between a neutral conditioned stimulus with the aversive unconditioned stimulus. However, when we activated tyraminergic/octopaminergic neurons we did not observe any directional preference. The activation of dopaminergic and tyraminergic/octopaminergic neurons led to arousal of the animals indicating that we were indeed successful in activating those neurons. Also, the activation of serotonergic neurons did not have any effect on directional preference of the animals. With this newly established paradigm it will be interesting to find out if in insects like in mammals a reward mediating system exists and to test subsets of aminergic or peptidergic neurons that could possibly be involved in a reward signaling system which has not been detected in our study. Also, it would be interesting to localize neuropile regions that would be involved in mediating choice behavior in our paradigm. PART II In collaboration with S. Kneitz (IZKF Wuerzburg) and T. Nuwal we performed genome-wide expression analysis of two pre-synaptic mutants - Synapsin (Syn97) and Synapse associated protein of 47 kDa (Sap47156). The rationale behind these experiments was to identify genes that were up- or down-regulated due to these mutations. The microarray experiments provided us with several candidate genes some of which we have verified by qPCR. From our qPCR analysis we can conclude that out of the verified genes only Cirl transcripts seem to be reproducibly down regulated in Synapsin mutants. The Cirl gene codes for a calcium independent receptor for latrotoxin. Further qPCR experiments need to be performed to verify other candidate genes. The molecular interactions between CIRL and SYN or their genes should now be investigated in detail.
Memory is dynamic: shortly after acquisition it is susceptible to amnesic treatments, gets gradually consolidated, and becomes resistant to retrograde amnesia (McGaugh, 2000). Associative olfactory memory of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster also shows these features. After a single associative training where an odor is paired with electric shock (Quinn et al., 1974; Tully and Quinn, 1985), flies form an aversive odor memory that lasts for several hours, consisting of qualitatively different components. These components can be dissociated by mutations, their underlying neuronal circuitry and susceptibility to amnesic treatments (Dubnau and Tully, 1998; Isabel et al., 2004; Keene and Waddell, 2007; Masek and Heisenberg, 2008; Xia and Tully, 2007). A component that is susceptible to an amnesic treatment, i.e. anesthesia-sensitive memory (ASM), dominates early memory, but decays rapidly (Margulies et al., 2005; Quinn and Dudai, 1976). A consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory component (ARM) is built gradually within the following hours and lasts significantly longer (Margulies et al., 2005; Quinn and Dudai, 1976). I showed here that the establishment of ARM requires less intensity of shock reinforcement than ASM. ARM and ASM rely on different molecular and/or neuronal processes: ARM is selectively impaired in the radish mutant, whereas for example the amnesiac and rutabaga genes are specifically required for ASM (Dudai et al., 1988; Folkers et al., 1993; Isabel et al., 2004; Quinn and Dudai, 1976; Schwaerzel et al., 2007; Tully et al., 1994). The latter comprise the cAMP signaling pathway in the fly, with the PKA being its supposed major target (Levin et al., 1992). Here I showed that a synapsin null-mutant encoding the evolutionary conserved phosphoprotein Synapsin is selectively impaired in the labile ASM. Further experiments suggested Synapsin as a potential downstream effector of the cAMP/PKA cascade. Similar to my results, Synapsin plays a role for different learning tasks in vertebrates (Gitler et al., 2004; Silva et al., 1996). Also in Aplysia, PKA-dependent phosphorylation of Synapsin has been proposed to be involved in regulation of neurotransmitter release and short-term plasticity (Angers et al., 2002; Fiumara et al., 2004). Synapsin is associated with a reserve pool of vesicles at the presynapse and is required to maintain vesicle release specifically under sustained high frequency nerve stimulation (Akbergenova and Bykhovskaia, 2007; Li et al., 1995; Pieribone et al., 1995; Sun et al., 2006). In contrast, the requirement of Bruchpilot, which is homologous to the mammalian active zone proteins ELKS/CAST (Wagh et al., 2006), is most pronounced in immediate vesicle release (Kittel et al., 2006). Under repeated stimulation of a bruchpilot mutant motor neuron, immediate vesicle release is severely impaired whereas the following steady-state release is still possible (Kittel et al., 2006). In line with that, knockdown of the Bruchpilot protein causes impairment in clustering of Ca2+ channels to the active zones and a lack of electron-dense projections at presynaptic terminals (T-bars). Thus, less synaptic vesicles of the readily-releasable pool are accumulated to the release sites and their release probability is severely impaired (Kittel et al., 2006; Wagh et al., 2006). First, I showed that Bruchpilot is required for aversive olfactory memory and localized the requirement of Bruchpilot to the Kenyon cells of the mushroom body, the second-order olfactory interneurons in Drosophila. Furthermore, I demonstrated that Bruchpilot selectively functions for the consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory. Since Synapsin is specifically required for the labile anesthesia sensitive memory, different synaptic proteins can dissociate consolidated and labile components of olfactory memory and two different modes of neurotransmission (high- vs. low frequency dependent) might differentiate ASM and ARM.
In dieser Doktorarbeit habe ich die Regulation der Expression des zuckerbelohnten Verhaltens durch den Fütterungszustand bei Drosophila melanogaster untersucht. Die Fliegen können während einer Trainingsphase mit Hilfe einer Zuckerbelohnung auf einen bestimmten Duft konditioniert werden. Nach dem Training können die Fliegen dann auf das olfaktorische Gedächtnis getestet werden. Die Bereitschaft das zuckerkonditionierte Gedächtnis im Test zu zeigen wird vom Fütterungszustand kontrolliert, wie ich in Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen früherer Arbeiten demonstrierte (Tempel et al. 1983; Gruber 2006; Krashes et al. 2008). Nur nicht gefütterte Fliegen exprimieren das Gedächtnis, während Fütterungen bis kurz vor dem Test eine reversibel supprimierende Wirkung haben. Einen ähnlichen regulatorischen Einfluss übt der Futterentzug auch auf die Expression anderer futterbezogener Verhaltensweisen, wie z.B. die naive Zuckerpräferenz, aus. Nachdem ich den drastischen Einfluss des Fütterungszustands auf die Ausprägung des zuckerkonditionierten Verhaltens gezeigt bzw. bestätigt hatte, habe ich nach verhaltensregulierenden Faktoren gesucht, die bei einer Fütterung die Gedächtnisexpression unterdrücken. Als mögliche Kandidaten untersuchte ich Parameter, die zum Teil bereits bei verschiedenen futterbezogenen Verhaltensweisen unterschiedlicher Tierarten als „Sättigungssignale“ identifiziert worden waren (Marty et al. 2007; Powley and Phillips 2004; Havel 2001; Bernays and Chapman 1974; Simpson and Bernays 1983; Gelperin 1971a). Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass weder die „ernährende“ Eigenschaft des Futters, noch ein durch Futteraufnahme bedingter Anstieg der internen Glukosekonzentration für die Suppression des zuckerkonditionierten Gedächtnisses notwendig sind. Die Unterdrückung der Gedächtnisexpression kann auch nicht durch Unterschiede in den aufgenommenen Futtermengen, die als verhaltensinhibitorische Dehnungssignale des Verdauungstrakts wirken könnten, oder mit der Stärke des süßen Geschmacks erklärt werden. Die Suppression des zuckerbelohnten Verhaltens folgte den Konzentrationen der gefütterten Substanzen und war unabhängig von deren chemischen Spezifität. Deshalb wird die Osmolarität des aufgenommenen Futters als ein entscheidender Faktor für die Unterdrückung der zuckerkonditionierten Gedächtnisexpression angenommen. Weil nur inkorporierte Substanzen einen Unterdrückungseffekt hatten, wird ein osmolaritätsdetektierender Mechanismus im Körper 67 postuliert, wahrscheinlich im Verdauungstrakt und/oder der Hämolymphe. Die Hämolymphosmolarität ist als „Sättigungssignal“ bei einigen wirbellosen Tieren bereits nachgewiesen worden (Bernays and Chapman 1974; Simpson and Raubenheimer 1993; Gelperin 1971a; Phifer and Prior 1985). Deshalb habe ich mit Hilfe genetischer Methoden und ohne die Fliegen zu füttern, versucht über einen künstlich induzierten Anstieg der Trehaloseund Lipidkonzentrationen die Osmolarität der Hämolymphe in Drosophila zu erhöhen. Eine solche konzentrationserhöhende Wirkung für Lipide und die Trehalose, dem Hauptblutzucker der Insekten, ist bereits für das adipokinetische Hormon (AKH), das von Zellen der Corpora cardiaca exprimiert wird, nachgewiesen worden (Kim and Rulifson 2004; Lee and Park 2004; Isabel et al. 2005). Es stellte sich heraus, dass die künstliche Stimulierung AKH-produzierender Neurone das zuckerkonditionierten Verhalten temporär, reversible und selektiv unterdrückt. Gleiche Behandlungen hatten keinen Effekt auf ein aversiv konditioniertes olfaktorisches Gedächtnis oder ein naives Zuckerpräferenzverhalten. Wie aus dieser Arbeit hervorgeht, stellt wahrscheinlich die Osmolarität des Verdauungstrakts und der Hämolymphe oder nur der Hämolymphe ein physiologisches Korrelat zum Fütterungszustand dar und wirkt als unterdrückendes Signal. Dass Fütterungen das zuckerkonditionierte Verhalten und die Zuckerpräferenz supprimieren, die künstliche Stimulation AKH-produzierender Zellen aber selektiv nur die zuckerbelohnte Gedächtnisexpression unterdrückt, deutet auf mindestens zwei unterschiedliche „Sättigungssignalwege“ hin. Außerdem macht es deutlich wie uneinheitlich futterbezogene Verhaltensweisen, wie das zuckerbelohnte Verhalten und die naive Zuckerpräferenz, reguliert werden.
In this work, a behavioural analysis of different mutants of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been carried out. Primarily, the gap climbing behaviour (Pick & Strauss, 2005) has been assayed as it lends itself for the investigation of decision making processes and the neuronal basis of adaptive behaviour. Furthermore it shows how basic motor actions can be combined into a complex motor behaviour. Thanks to the neurogenetic methods, Drosophila melanogaster has become an ideal study object for neurobiological questions. Two different modules of climbing control have been examined in detail. For the decision making, the mutant climbing sisyphus was analysed. While wild-type flies adapt the initiation of climbing behaviour to the width of the gap and the probability for a successful transition. climbing sisyphus flies initiate climbing behaviour even at clearly insurmountable gap widths. The climbing success itself is not improved in comparison to the wild-type siblings. The mutant climbing sisyphus is a rare example of a hyperactive mutant besides many mutants that show a reduced activity. Basic capabilities in vision have been tested in an optomotor and a distance-estimation paradigm. Since they are not affected, a defect in decision making is most probably the cause of this behavioural aberration. A second module of climbing control is keeping up orientation towards the opposite side of the gap during the execution of climbing behaviour. Mutants with a structural defect in the protocerebral bridge show abnormal climbing behaviour. During the climbing attempt, the longitudinal body axis does not necessarily point into the direction of the opposite side. Instead, many climbing events are initiated at the side edge of the walking block into the void and have no chance to ever succeed. The analysed mutants are not blind. In one of the mutants, tay bridge1 (tay1) a partial rescue attempt used to map the function in the brain succeeded such that the state of the bridge was restored. That way, a visual targeting mechanism has been activated, allowing the flies to target the opposite side. When the visibility of the opposing side was reduced, the rescued flies went back to a tay1 level of directional scatter. The results are in accord with the idea that the bridge is a central constituent of the visual targeting mechanism. The tay1 mutant was also analysed in other behavioural paradigms. A reduction in walking speed and walking activity in this mutant could be rescued by the expression of UAS-tay under the control of the 007Y-GAL4 driver line, which concomitantly restores the structure of the protocerebral bridge. The separation of bridge functions from functions of other parts of the brain of tay1 was accomplished by rescuing the reduced optomotor compensation in tay1 by the mb247-GAL4>UAS-tay driver. While still having a tay1-like protocerebral bridge, mb247-GAL4 rescue flies are able to compensate at wild-type levels. An intact compensation is not depended on the tay expression in the mushroom bodies, as mushroom body ablated flies with a tay1 background and expression of UAS-tay under the control of mb247-GAL4 show wild-type behaviour as well. The most likely substrate for the function are currently unidentified neurons in the fan-shaped body, that can be stained with 007Y-GAL4 and mb247-GAL4 as well.
Eine der größten Herausforderungen in der Neurobiologie ist es, die neuronalen Prozesse zu verstehen, die Lernen und Gedächtnis zugrundeliegen. Welche biochemischen Pfade liegen z.B. der Koinzidenzdetektion von Reizen (klassische Konditionierung) oder einer Handlung und ihren Konsequenzen (operante Konditionierung) zugrunde? In welchen neuronalen Unterstrukturen werden diese Informationen gespeichert? Wie ähnlich sind die Stoffwechselwege, die diese beiden Arten des assoziativen Lernens vermitteln und auf welchem Niveau divergieren sie? Drosophila melanogaster ist wegen der Verfügbarkeit von Lern-Paradigmen und neurogenetischen Werkzeugen ein geeigneter Modell-Organismus, zum diese Fragen zu adressieren. Er ermöglicht eine umfangreiche Studie der Funktion des Gens S6KII, das in der Taufliege in klassischer und operanter Konditionierung unterschiedlich involviert ist (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz et al., 2004). Rettungsexperimenten zeigen, dass die olfaktorische Konditionierung in der Tully Maschine (ein klassisches, Pawlow’sches Konditionierungsparadigma) von dem Vorhandensein eines intakten S6KII Gens abhängt. Die Rettung war sowohl mit einer vollständigen, als auch einer partiellen Deletion erfolgreich und dies zeigt, dass der Verlust der phosphorylierenden Untereinheit der Kinase die Hauptursache des Funktionsdefektes war. Das GAL4/UAS System wurde benutzt, um die S6KII Expression zeitlich und räumlich zu steuern. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Expression der Kinase während des adulten Stadiums für die Rettung hinreichend war. Dieser Befund schließt eine Entwicklungsstörung als Ursache für den mutanten Phänotyp aus. Außerdem zeigte die gezielte räumliche Rettung von S6KII die Notwendigkeit der Pilzkörper und schloss Strukturen wie das mediane Bündel, die Antennalloben und den Zentralkomplex aus. Dieses Muster ist dem vorher mit der rutabaga Mutation identifizierten sehr ähnlich (Zars et al., 2000). Experimente mit der Doppelmutante rut, ign58-1 deuten an, dass rutabaga und S6KII im gleichen Signalweg aktiv sind. Vorhergehende Studien hatten bereits gezeigt, dass die unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse bei operanter und klassischer Konditionierung auf verschiedenen Rollen für S6KII in den zwei Arten des Lernens hindeuten (Bertolucci, 2002; Putz, 2002). Diese Schlussfolgerung wurde durch den mutanten Phänotyp der transgenen Linien in der Positionskonditionierung und ihr wildtypisches Verhalten in der klassischen Konditionierung zusätzlich bekräftigt. Eine neue Art von Lern-Experiment, genannt „Idle Experiment“, wurde entworfen. Es basiert auf der Konditionierung der Laufaktivität, stellt eine operante Aufgabenstellung dar und überwindet einige der Limitationen des „Standard“ Heat-Box Experimentes. Die neue Art des Idle Experimentes erlaubt es, „gelernte Hilflosigkeit“ in Fliegen zu erforschen, dabei zeigte sich eine erstaunliche Ähnlichkeit zu den Vorgängen in komplizierteren Organismen wie Ratten, Mäusen oder Menschen. Gelernte Hilflosigkeit in der Taufliege wurde nur in den Weibchen beobachtet und wird von Antidepressiva beeinflusst.
Übertragbare spongiforme Enzephalopathien (TSE) wie Scrapie beim Schaf, die bovine spongiforme Enzephalopathie (BSE) beim Rind oder die Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Krankheit (CJD) beim Menschen sind fortschreitende neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, die nach langer Inkubationszeit zum Tod führen. Die protein only-Hypothese besagt, dass das infektiöse Agens „Prion“ teilweise oder vollständig aus dem zellulären Prion-Protein (PrPC) besteht und nach Infektion des Organismus die Konversion von PrPC in die pathogene Isoform (PrPSc) verursacht. Die der Krankheit zugrunde liegenden neuropathologischen Mechanismen und die physiologische Funktion von PrPC sind bisher unbekannt. Es wurden jedoch eine neuroprotektive Funktion oder eine mögliche Rolle im Zusammenhang mit der oxidativen Stress Homöostase postuliert. In dieser Arbeit wurden transgene Drosophila melanogaster-Linien als Modell zur Untersuchung der Funktion von PrPC etabliert. Unter Verwendung des Expressionssystems UAS/GAL4 exprimierten die Fliegen entweder wildtypisches PrP (wt-PrP) oder eine trunkierte, krankheits-assoziierte Mutante PrPΔ32-134 (tr-PrP), der die potentielle neuroprotektive Octarepeat-Domäne entfernt wurde. Wt-PrP transgene Fliegen zeigten nach Vergleich mit Kontrolllinien eine signifikante, um 20% erhöhte allgemeine Lebenserwartung. Obwohl die Expression von tr-PrP in Drosophila zu keinen nachweisbaren neuropathologischen Veränderungen führte, wurde die Lebensspanne um 8% reduziert. Ko-Expression von wt-PrP und tr-PrP konnte diesen Effekt nicht komplementieren, was eine chronische Toxizität der trunkierten Form nahelegt, die in diesem Zusammenhang der Neuroprotektion übergeordnet ist. Da Lebenserwartung und Stressresistenz eng miteinander korrelieren, wurden die Fliegen den reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies Wasserstoffperoxid, Sauerstoff und Paraquat ausgesetzt, um auf drei unabhängigen Wegen oxidativen Stress zu induzieren. In der Tat vermittelt wt-PrP eine signifikante Stressresistenz, wohingegen tr-PrP-exprimierende Tiere eine normale Anfälligkeit offenbarten, die jedoch teilweise durch Ko-Expression beider PrP-Formen komplementiert werden konnte. Hier erscheint die protektive Funktion von wt-PrP der Toxizität der Deletionsmutante übergeordnet zu sein. Diese Daten belegen eine wichtige Funktion des Prion-Proteins bezüglich der Abwehr von oxidativem Stress. Essentiell ist dabei die Kupfer-bindende Octarepeat-Domäne, durch die möglicherweise Fenton-ähnliche Reaktionen, die bei der Sauerstoff-Radikalsynthese eine wichtige Rolle spielen, inhibiert werden könnten. Konsistent damit ist die Beobachtung des Verlusts der erworbenen Stressresistenz nach Expression der Octarepeat-losen Mutante tr-PrP und die signifikante Reduktion der Lebenserwartung über einen bislang unaufgeklärten Mechanismus. Das Drosophila PrP-Modell bietet die Möglichkeit, die physiologische Funktion von PrP detailliert zu untersuchen. Außerdem ist die Identifizierung unbekannter PrP-Interaktionspartner ermöglicht, um Signaltransduktionswege des PrP und die zugrunde liegenden neurodegenerativen Mechanismen aufzuklären.
Towards localizing the Synapsin-dependent olfactory memory trace in the brain of larval Drosophila
(2008)
Animals need to adapt and modify their behaviour according to a changing environment. In particular, the ability to learn about rewarding or punishing events is crucial for survival. One key process that underlies such learning are modifications of the synaptic connection between nerve cells. This Thesis is concerned with the genetic determinants of such plasticity, and with the site of these modifications along the sensory-to-motor loops in Drosophila olfactory learning. I contributed to the development and detailed parametric description of an olfactory associative learning paradigm in larval fruit flies (Chapter I.1.). The robustness of this learning assay, together with a set of transgenic Drosophila strains established during this Thesis, enabled me to study the role for Synapsin, a presynaptic phosphoprotein likely involved in synaptic plasticity, in this form of learning (Chapter I.2.), and to investigate the cellular site of the corresponding Synapsin-dependent memory trace (Chapter I.3.). These data provide the first comprehensive account to-date of the neurogenetic bases of learning in larval Drosophila. The role for Synapsin was also analyzed with regard to pain-relief learning in adult fruit flies (Chapter II.1.); that is, if an odour precedes an electric shock during training, flies subsequently avoid that odour (‘punishment learning’), whereas presentation of the odour upon the cessation of shock subsequently leads to approach towards the odour (‘relief larning’). Such pain-relief learning was also the central topic of a study concerning the white gene (Chapter II.2.), which as we report does affect pain-relief as well as punishment learning in adult flies, but leaves larval odour-food learning unaffected. These studies regarding pain-relief learning provide the very first hints, in any experimental system, concerning the genetic determinants of this form of learning.
In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Techniken zur Analyse der Funktion diverser Neuronen in Drosophila melanogaster angewendet. Im ersten Teil wurde mittels in-vivo Calcium Imaging Technik unter Verwendung des Calciumsensors Cameleon neuronale Aktivität entlang des olfaktorischen Signalweges registriert. Hierbei wurde die neuronale Repräsentation der Duftidentität und der Duftintensität untersucht. In Bezug auf diese Fragestellung wurde die Datenverarbeitung und Datenanalyse weiterentwickelt und standardisiert. Die Experimente führten zu dem Ergebnis, dass duftspezifische Aktivitätsmuster auf der Ebene des Antennallobus sehr gut unterscheidbar sind. Manche Aktivitätsmuster der präsentierten Düfte zeigten interessanterweise einen hohen Ähnlichkeitsgrad, wohingegen andere unähnlich waren. In höheren Gehirnzentren wie den Orten der terminalen Aborisationen der Projektionsneurone oder den Pilzkörper Kenyonzellen liegt eine starke Variabilität der duftevozierten Aktivitätsmuster vor, was generelle Interpretationen unmöglich macht und höchstens Vergleiche innerhalb eines Individuums zulässt. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Calciumsignale in den Rezeptorneuronen sowie prä- und postsynaptisch in den Projektionsneuronen bei Erhöhung der Konzentration der verschiedenen präsentierten Düfte über einen Bereich von mindestens drei Größenordnungen ansteigen. In den Kenyonzellen des Pilzkörper-Calyx und der Pilzkörper-Loben ist diese Konzentrationsabhängigkeit weniger deutlich ausgeprägt und im Falle der Loben nur für bestimmte Düfte detektierbar. Eine Bestätigung des postulierten „sparsed code“ der Duftpräsentation in den Pilzkörpern konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht erbracht werden, was möglicherweise daran liegt, dass eine Einzelzellauflösung mit der verwendeten Technik nicht erreicht werden kann. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit sollte durch die Nutzung des lichtabhängigen Kationenkanals Channelrhodopsin-2 der Frage nachgegangen werden, ob bestimmte modulatorische Neurone die verstärkenden Eigenschaften eines bestrafenden oder belohnenden Stimulus vermitteln. Die lichtinduzierte Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 exprimierenden dopaminergen Neuronen als Ersatz für einen aversiven Reiz führte bei einer olfaktorischen Konditionierung bei Larven zur Bildung eines aversiven assoziativen Gedächtnisses. Im Gegensatz dazu induzierte die Aktivierung von Channelrhodopsin-2 in oktopaminergen/tyraminergen Neuronen als Ersatz für einen appetitiven Reiz ein appetitives assoziatives Gedächtnis. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass dopaminerge Neurone bei Larven aversives Duftlernen, oktopaminerge/tyraminerge Neurone dagegen appetitives Duftlernen induzieren.
Die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz ist ein Indikator für eine mögliche Abhängigkeit von Alkohol. Der genaue molekulare Mechanismus der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung ist jedoch nicht bekannt. Drosophila ermöglicht die molekulare und phänotypische Untersuchung von verschiedenen Mutanten mit veränderter Toleranz und kann so zu einem besseren Verständnis beitragen. Die hangAE10 Mutante entwickelt eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz, wobei dieser Phänotyp auf Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort zurückzuführen ist. Für ein besseres Verständnis, in welchen molekularen Mechanismen bzw. Signalwegen HANG wirkt, wurde die Funktion des Proteins auf zellulärer Ebene analysiert und mögliche Zielgene charakterisiert. Die auffällige Proteinstruktur von HANG spricht für eine Interaktion mit Nukleinsäuren. Immunhistochemische Analysen von ektopisch exprimiertem Hangover Protein ergaben, dass dieses nicht mit der DNA co-lokalisiert und auch nicht an polytänen Chromosomen nachgewiesen werden kann. Die ektopische Expression von HANG in Speicheldrüsenzellen zeigte eine punktförmige Verteilung des Proteins innerhalb des Zellkerns. Dieses punktförmige Expressionsmuster wird häufig in RNA-bindenden Proteinen gefunden. Deshalb wurden Co-Lokalisationsstudien von HANG mit Markern für RNAmodifizierende Proteine durchgeführt. Dabei wurde keine Interaktion mit verschiedenen Markerproteinen des Spleißapparates gefunden. Mithilfe von in vitro Experimenten konnte aber die Bindung von RNA an bestimmten Hangover Proteinbereichen nachgewiesen werden Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass HANG eine RNA-regulierende Funktion hat. In einem cDNA Microarray Experiment wurde das Gen dunce als mögliches Zielgen von Hangover identifiziert. Das Gen dunce kodiert für eine Phosphodiesterase, welche spezifisch cAMP hydrolysiert. Zur Bestätigung der cDNA Microarray Experimente wurden die dnc Transkriptunterschiede in Wildtyp und hangAE10 Mutante mithilfe von semiquantitativer RT-PCR für jede der vier Gruppen untersucht. Dabei konnte eine Reduktion der dncRMRA-Transkriptgruppe in hangAE10 Mutanten nachgewiesen werden. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse wurde die dncRMRA -spezifische dncΔ143 Mutante hergestellt und auf Verhaltensebene analysiert. Die Experimente zeigten, dass sowohl dnc1, als auch die dncΔ143 Mutante eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz und Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort aufweisen. Für die Rettung der reduzierten Toleranz von hangAE10 und dncΔ143 in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde die dncRMRA Promotor- GAL4 Linie hergestellt. Die reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz der dncΔ143 Mutanten konnte über die Expression von UAS-dnc mit der dncRMRA-GAL4 Linie auf Wildtyp Level gerettet werden. Die reduzierte Toleranz der hangAE10 Mutante konnte mithilfe derselben GAL4 Linie verbessert werden. Dies beweist, dass in beiden Mutanten dieselben Zellen für die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz benötigt werden und sie wahrscheinlich in der gleichen Signaltransduktionskaskade eine Funktion haben. Aufgrund der Anfälligkeit der UAS/ GAL4 Systems gegenüber Hitze war es außerdem nicht möglich die Defekte der zellulären Stressantwort von dncΔ143 bzw. hangAE10 Fliegen zu retten. Die Rettung der reduzierten Ethanoltoleranz der dcnΔ143 Mutante führte außerdem zu der Vermutung, dass die cAMP Regulation eine wichtige Funktion bei der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung hat. Über die Expression von cAMP-regulierenden Proteinen in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde der Einfluss von cAMP bei Ethanol-induziertem Verhalten überprüft. Bei der Überexpression von dunce und rutabaga konnte weder eine Veränderung für die Ethanolsensitivität, noch für die Toleranzentwicklung festgestellt werden. Eine Erklärung hierfür wäre, dass Veränderungen in der cAMP Konzentration über Rückkopplungsmechanismen zwischen Dunce und Rutabaga ausgeglichen werden können. Für eine genauere Aussage müsste jedoch die cAMP Konzentration in diesen Fliegen gemessen werden. Die Überexpression von pka- in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen führt zu einer erhöhten Ethanolresistenz. Das bedeutet, dass die Modulation der cAMP Konzentration durch dunce und rutabaga in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen keinen Einfluss auf Ethanol-induziertes Verhalten hat, wohingegen die Stärke der cAMP vermittelten Signalverarbeitung über die cAMP-abhängige PKA zu Veränderungen im Verhalten führt. Für Mutanten des cAMP Signalweges ist außerdem bekannt, dass sie Defekte im olfaktorischen Lernen bzw. Gedächtnis aufweisen. Deshalb wurden die dncΔ143, dnc1 und hangAE10 Mutanten in diesem Paradigma getestet. Sowohl dnc1, als auch dncΔ143 Fliegen zeigten einen reduzierten Performance Index für das zwei und 30 Minuten Gedächtnis. Nach 180 Minuten verhielten sich die dncΔ143 Mutanten nicht mehr unterschiedlich zum Wildtyp, die dnc1 Mutante zeigte jedoch immer noch eine Reduktion des Performance Index im Vergleich zur Kontrolle. Demnach ist in dncΔ143 Mutanten nur das Kurzzeitgedächtnis betroffen, wohingegen hangAE10 Mutanten keine Reduktion des Performance Index für das olfaktorische Kurzzeitgedächtnis aufweisen. Die unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse der beiden Mutanten in der Gedächtnisentwicklung deuten außerdem daraufhin, dass Lernen und Gedächtnis in dncΔ143 und hangAE10 Mutanten von der Toleranzentwicklung unabhängig über unterschiedliche cAMP-abhängige Signaltransduktionskaskaden reguliert werden.
Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist das Drosophila melanogaster Protein DPAK3, ein Vertreter der hochkonservierten Familie der p21-aktivierten Kinasen (PAK). DPAK3 und seine Homologen aus anderen Insektenarten und C. elegans können aufgrund eines Vergleichs der Proteinsequenz und struktureller Merkmale in eine eigenen Untergruppe 1* innerhalb der Gruppe 1 der PAK-Proteine eingeordnet werden. Das Genom von Drosophila kodiert noch für zwei weitere PAK-Proteine, das zur Gruppe 1 gehörende DPAK1 und das Gruppe 2 PAK-Protein Mbt. Wie die klassischen Gruppe 1 PAK-Proteine bildet DPAK3 im inaktiven Zustand Dimere. DPAK3 interagiert mit den GTP-gebundenen Formen der RhoGTPasen Rac1, Rac2 und Cdc42. Durch die Bindung dieser Proteine geht DPAK3 aus dem dimeren in den monomeren Zustand über und seine Kinaseaktivität wird durch diese Bindung gesteigert. DPAK3 ist für die Ausbildung der korrekten Morphologie kultivierter Drosophila Zellen erforderlich und beeinflußt die Regulation des Aktinzytoskeletts. Weiterhin konnte CK2beta, die regulatorische Untereinheit der Casein Kinase 2, als neuer Regulator von p21-aktivierten Kinasen identifiziert werden. Das Genom von Drosophila besitzt drei Transkriptionseinheiten, die für CK2beta', CK2betatestes und fünf verschiedene Isoformen von CK2beta kodieren. Eine vergleichende Analyse zeigt, daß alle CK2beta-Proteine mit DPAK1, DPAK3 und in geringerem Maß auch mit Mbt interagieren und in der Lage sind, die Aktivität der PAK-Proteine in vitro zu hemmen. Die Bindung von CK2beta an DPAK3 wird, wie bei allen anderen Serin- / Threoninkinasen, die bisher als Interaktionspartner von CK2beta identifiziert wurden, über die Kinasedomäne von DPAK3 vermittelt. Die Bildung des aus zwei katalytischen CK2a und zwei CK2beta Untereinheiten bestehenden CK2-Holoenzyms hängt von der Fähigkeit von CK2beta ab, Dimere zu bilden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Bildung eines b-b Dimers für die Interaktion mit und Regulation von DPAK3 nicht erforderlich ist. In vivo wurden die bisher bekannten Dpak3 Allele untersucht, wobei kein gesichertes Nullallel identifiziert werden konnte. Durch enzymatisch katalysierte Rekombination wurde eine neue Deletion hergestellt, die das komplette Leseraster von Dpak3 entfernt. Mit Hilfe von genetischen Mosaiken wurde die Rolle von DPAK3 in der Augenentwicklung untersucht. Durch den Verlust der Genfunktion von Dpak3 wird die Ausbildung der korrekten Struktur der Komplexaugen nur leicht beeinträchtigt. Bei der Analyse einer Dpak1 Mutante wurde dasselbe Ergebnis erzielt. Gleichzeitiger Verlust der Genfunktion von Dpak1 und Dpak3 hingegen führt zu massiven strukturellen Defekten. DPAK1 und DPAK3 erfüllen somit zumindest teilweise redundante Funktionen in der Augenentwicklung. Es wird Gegenstand zukünftiger Studien sein müssen, die gemeinsamen und getrennten Funktionen dieser PAK-Proteine in Drosophila aufzuklären.
Die Zusammenlageurng spleißosomaler UsnRNPs erfolgt beim Menschen und anderen Vertebraten durch den makromolekularen SMN-Komplex. Dieser besteht aus insgesamt neun Proteinen, genannt SMN und Gemin2-8. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Evolution dieser molekularen Maschine untersucht. Dazu wurden die Genome mehrerer Modellorganismen bioinformatisch nach Orthologen von SMN und seinen Komplexpartnern durchsucht. Es zeigte sich, dass SMN und Gemin2 die Kernkomponenten des Komplexes darstellen. Von diesen ausgehend kamen weitere Komponenten im Laufe der Evolution hinzu und zwar blockweise, wie es ihrer physischen Assoziation im humanen Komplex entspricht. Um diese Befunde einer biochemischen Überprüfung zu unterziehen, wurde ein neues Affinitätsepitop, das TagIt-Epitop, entwickelt. Nach stabiler Transfektion von Drosophila Schneider2-Zellen konnte das Fusionsprotein effizient exprimiert und der Drosophila-SMN-Komplex nativ aufgereinigt werden. Die massenspektrometrische Untersuchung des Komplexes zeigte, dass SMN und Gemin2 seine einzigen stöchiometrischen Komponenten sind. Dies ist in eindrucksvoller Übereinstimmung mit den bioinformatischen Daten. Der aufgereinigte Komplex lagert in vitro Sm-Proteine mit der entsprechenden UsnRNA zum UsnRNP-core-Komplex zusammen. Diese Ergebnisse ließen sich nach rekombinanter Rekonstitution des SMN/Gemin2-Dimers rekapitulieren. Dabei zeigte sich, dass der SMN-Komplex die unkoordinierte Bindung der Sm-Proteine an „falsche“ RNAs verhindert. Folglich genügen SMN und Gemin2 zur Zusammenlagerung des Sm-core-Komplexes, während die übrigen Gemine weitere Funktionen im Kontext der UsnRNP-Biogenese spielen könnten. Aus evolutionsbiologischer Sichtweise ist der SMN-Komplex aus Drosophila ein eindrückliches Beispiel, wie die Vereinfachung eines biochemischen Prozesses zur Kompaktierung des Genoms beitragen kann.
Vertebrate and invertebrate visual systems exhibit similarities in early stages of visual processing. For instance, in the human brain, the modalities of color, form and motion are separately processed in parallel neuronal pathways. This basic property is also found in the fly Drosophila melanogaster which has a similar division in color- sensitive and (color blind) motion-sensitive pathways that are determined by two distinct subsets of photoreceptors (the R1-6 and the R7/8 system, respectively). Flies have a highly organized visual system that is characterized by its repetitive, retinotopic organization of four neuropils: the lamina, the medulla, the lobula and the lobula plate. Each of these consists of columns which contain the same set of neurons. In the lamina, axon bundles of six photoreceptors R1-6 that are directed towards the same point in space form columnar structures called cartridges. These are the visual sampling units and are associated with four types of first-order interneuron that receive common input from R1-6: L1, L2, L3 and the amacrine cells (amc, together with their postsynaptic partner T1). They constitute parallel pathways that have been studied in detail at the anatomical level. Little is known, however, about their functional role in processing behaviorally relevant information, e.g. for gaze stabilization, visual course control or the fixation of objects. The availability of a variety of neurogenetic tools for structure-function analysis in Drosophila allowed first steps into the genetic dissection of the neuronal circuitry mediating motion and position detection. In this respect, the choice of the effector turned out to be crucial. Surprisingly, it was found that the clostridial tetanus neurotoxin failed to block mature Drosophila photoreceptor synapses, but caused irreversible damage when expressed during their development. Therefore, the dominant-negative shibire allele shits1 which turned out to be better suited was used for blocking lamina interneurons and thereby analyzing the necessity of the respective pathways. To determine whether the latter were also sufficient for the same behavioral task, the inverse strategy was developed, based on the fact that lamina interneurons express histamine receptors encoded by the ort gene. The specific rescue of ort function in defined channels in an otherwise mutant background allowed studying their sufficiency in a given task. Combining these neurogenetic methods with the optomotor response and object induced orientation behavior as behavioral measures, the aim of the present thesis was to answer the following questions: (a) Which pathways feed into elementary motion detectors and which ones are necessary and/or sufficient for the detection of directional motion? (b) Do pathways exist which specifically mediate responses to unidirectional motion? (c) Which pathways are necessary and/or sufficient for object induced orientation behavior? Some basic properties of the visual circuitry were revealed: The two central cartridge pathways, represented by the large monopolar cells L1 and L2, are key players in motion detection. Under a broad range of stimulatory conditions, the two subsystems are redundant and are able to process motion independently of each other. To detect an impairment when only one of the pathways is intact, one has to drive the system to its operational limits. At low signal to noise ratios, i.e. at low pattern contrast or low background illumination, the L2 pathway has a higher sensitivity. At intermediate pattern contrast, both pathways are specialized in mediating responses to unidirectional motion of opposite stimulus direction. In contrast, neither the L3, nor the amc/T1 pathway is necessary or sufficient for motion detection. While the former may provide position information for orientation, the latter has a modulatory role at intermediate pattern contrast. Orientation behavior turned out to be even more robust than motion vision and may utilize a less sophisticated mechanism, as it does not require a nonlinear comparison of signals from neighboring visual sampling units. The position of objects is processed in several redundant pathways, involving both receptor subsystems. The fixation of objects does not generally require motion vision. However, motion detection improves the fixation of landmarks, especially when these are narrow or have a reduced contrast.
Es sollten neuronale Netzwerke in Drosophila melanogaster identifiziert werden, die in die Entwicklung von ethanolinduziertem Verhalten involviert sind. Mittels der Tyramin-beta-Hydroxylase (TbH) wird der letzte Schritt der Biosynthese von Oktopamin aus Tyramin gewährleistet. TbHM18 Mutanten entwickeln eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz und haben keine nachweisbaren Oktopamin Konzentrationen (MONASTIRIOTI et al. 1996; SCHOLZ et al. 2000). Die molekulargenetische Ursache dieser Mutante wurde näher untersucht. Wahrscheinlich ist die Deletion von einem Teil des Intron 1, des Exon 2 und einem Teil des Intron 2 des TbH-Gens verantwortlich für den Verlust der Tyramin-beta-Hydroxylase. Die Deletion der kodierenden Sequenz führt jedoch nicht zu einem Leserasterschub in der Aminosäuresequenz. Demzufolge könnte ein verkürztes Protein hergestellt werden. Ferner gibt es zwei Transkripte des TbH-Gens, woraus eventuell zwei Proteine exprimiert werden könnten. Ein Protein wäre die Tyramin-beta-Hydroxylase und das andere könnte eine Dopamin-beta-Hydroxylase sein. Um möglicherweise spezifische putative Subsets von TH-positiven Neuronen zu markieren, wurden verschiedene GAL4-Treiberlinien mit Hilfe unterschiedlicher Fragmente der Promoterregion des TbH-Gens hergestellt. Mittels des GAL4/UAS Systems konnte die Neurotransmitterausschüttung in putativen TbH-positiven Neuronen der TbH-GAL4-Linien inhibiert werden. Auf diese Weise sollte die Funktion der putativen TbH-positiven Neurone während der Entwicklung von Ethanolsensitivität und Toleranz untersucht werden. Das Transgen Tetanustoxin wurde mit der 1.3TbH-GAL4 Treiberlinie in einem bestimmten Set von Neuronen exprimiert. Die Inhibition der Synaptobrevin-abhängigen Neurotransmission in den 1.3TH-GAL4-positiven Neuronen beeinflusst nicht das ethanolinduzierte Verhalten. Hingegen das Ausschalten der Erregbarkeit der Zellen mit Hilfe eines UAS-Kir2.1 Transgens resultiert in erhöhter Resistenz gegenüber Ethanol. Das heißt, dass Synaptobrevin-unabhängige zelluläre Mechanismen der Zellen notwendig sind, um ethanolinduziertes Verhalten zu regulieren. Die 1.3TbH-GAL4-Linie exprimiert in einem sehr spezifischen Subset von Neuronen GAL4, bzw. Effektoren. Insgesamt werden ≈ 10 Zellen detektiert. Davon liegen die Somata zweier Neurone caudal und projizieren in die Region der ersten und vierten Bande des Fächerförmigen Körpers. Weitere kleine Ansammlungen von acht Zellen können um den Ösophagus und im Bereich des Subösophagialganglion verzeichnet werden. Die mit GFP markierten Neurone exprimieren wahrscheinlich kein Oktopamin. Ferner resultierte die Inhibition der synaptischen Transmission von 6.2TbH-GAL4-positiven Neuronen, mit Hilfe von Tetanustoxin, in einer erhöhten Ethanolsensitivität. Ebenfalls zu einer ethanolinduzierten Verhaltensänderung führt die Inaktivierung der 6.2TbH-GAL4 Zellen mittels eines UAS-Kir2.1 Transgens. Dabei entwickeln die Fliegen eine erhöhte Ethanolresistenz. Somit wäre möglich, dass die Entwicklung von Ethanolsensitivität und Resistenz über verschiedene zelluläre Mechanismen reguliert werden. Die 6.2TbH-GAL4-Linie ermöglicht die Transgen-Expression in 65-70 Neuronen. Diese innerverieren u.a. das Subösophagialganglion, den Ösophagus, den Ellipsoid Körper, das laterale und das dorso-laterale Protocerebrum. Fünf der Neurone, die sich durch die 6.2TbH-GAL4 Treiberlinie markieren lassen, exprimieren Oktopamin. Dazu gehört ein VUM-Neuron und vier große caudale Zellen. Eine weitere putativ oktopaminerge GAL4-Linie Tdc2-GAL4 wurde mit der UAS-Kir2.1 Effektorlinie gekreuzt und die Nachkommen im Inebriometer gemessen. Bei Inaktivierung der Erregbarkeit der Tdc2-positiven Neurone resultiert dies in einer erhöhten Ethanolsensitivität, hingegen in keiner Veränderung der Toleranz. Die reduzierten Levels an Oktopamin spielen dabei wahrscheinlich eine Rolle. Hingegen regulieren eventuelle neurosekretorische Zellen über andere Mechanismen die Ethanolresistenz, wie die 6.2TbH-GAL4, UAS-Kir2.1 Fliegen zeigen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass unterschiedliche Neuronencluster für verschiedene ethanolinduzierte Verhaltensantworten verantwortlich sind. Da wahrscheinlich neurosekretorische Zellen des PI die Ethanolresistenz beeinflussen (RODAN et al. 2002), hingegen den Zentralkomplex-innervierende Zellen eher für die Entwicklung von Ethanolsensitivität und Toleranz notwendig sind (URIZAR et al. 2007).
Since the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster entered the laboratories as a model organism, new genetic, physiological, molecular and behavioral techniques for the functional analysis of the brain rapidly accumulated. Nowadays this concerted assault obtains its main thrust form Gal4 expression patterns that can be visualized and provide the means for manipulating -in unrestrained animals- groups of neurons of the brain. To take advantage of these patterns one needs to know their anatomy. This thesis describes the Virtual Insect Brain (VIB) protocol, a software package for the quantitative assessment, comparison, and presentation of neuroanatomical data. It is based on the 3D-reconstruction and visualization software Amira (Mercury Inc.). Its main part is a standardization procedure which aligns individual 3D images (series of virtual sections obtained by confocal microscopy) to a common coordinate system and computes average intensities for each voxel (volume pixel). The VIB protocol facilitates direct comparison of gene expression patterns and describes their interindividual variability. It provides volumetry of brain regions and helps to characterize the phenotypes of brain structure mutants. Using the VIB protocol does not require any programming skills since all operations are carried out at a (near to) self-explanatory graphical user interface. Although the VIB protocol has been developed for the standardization of Drosophila neuroanatomy, the program structure can be used for the standardization of other 3D structures as well. Standardizing brains and gene expression patterns is a new approach to biological shape and its variability. Using the VIB protocol consequently may help to integrate knowledge on the correlation of form and function of the insect brain. The VIB protocol provides a first set of tools supporting this endeavor in Drosophila. The software is freely available at http://www.neurofly.de.
Die Technik des optischen Imaging unter Verwendung DNA-codierter Sensoren ermöglicht es, Messungen neuraler Aktivitäten in genetisch definierten Populationen von Neuronen durchzuführen. In der Vielzahl der verschiedenen entwickelten Sensoren konnten die Calciumsensoren bisher das beste Verhältnis zwischen Signal und Rauschen und die beste zeitliche Auflösung aufzeigen. Hierbei handelt es sich in erster Linie um zwei Typen von Sensoren, zum einen ratiometrische Sensoren, deren Signal auf einem Fluoreszenz Resonanz Energie Transfer (FRET) basiert, und zum anderen um zirkulär permutierte Sensoren, die auf einem modifizierten GFP-Molekül basieren, wobei das Signal auf einer veränderten Protonierung des Chromophors beruht. Beide Arten dieser Sensoren wurden schon erfolgreich zum Messen neuraler Aktivitäten in Nervensystemen verschiedener Tierarten verwendet. Ein Teil dieser Arbeit bestand darin, zu untersuchen, welche Sensoren sich für die Messung an einem lebenden Organismus am besten eignen. Hierfür wurden die Eigenschaften von vier verschiedenen FRET basierten Sensoren und zwei der zyklisch permutierten Sensoren nach Expression im zentralen Nervensystem von Drosophila charakterisiert. Die Sensoren wurden in Neuronen zweiter und dritter Ordnung des olfaktorischen Signalwegs exprimiert und ihre Antworten auf physiologische Duftstimulation oder artifiziell induzierte Depolarisation des Gehirns untersucht. Während die calciumabhängigen Signale der zyklisch permutierten Sensoren in der Regel größer waren als die der FRET basierten Sensoren, zeichneten sich letztere durch ein besseres Signal zu Rausch-Verhältnis aus, wenn Bewegungen der fluoreszierenden Strukturen nicht zu vermeiden waren. Dies war auch der ausschlaggebende Grund für die Verwendung eines FRET basierten Sensors im anschließenden Teil der Arbeit. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde der Effekt untersucht, den die Paarung eines neutralen Stimulus mit einem bestrafenden Stimulus auf dopaminerge Neurone hat. Eine solche Paarung kann zu einer klassischen Konditionierung führen, einer einfachen Form des Lernens, in welcher das Tier einem ursprünglich neutralen Stimulus einen Wert zuordnet, und dadurch sein Verhalten dem Stimulus gegenüber ändert. Die olfaktorische klassische Konditionierung in Drosophila wird seit vielen Jahren intensiv untersucht, um die molekularen und neuronalen Grundlagen von Lernen und Gedächtnis zu charakterisieren. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, dass besonders die Pilzkörper von essentieller Bedeutung für die Ausbildung eines olfaktorischen Gedächtnisses sind. Während das olfactorische System bei Insekten bereits detailiert analysiert wurde, ist über die Neurone, die den bestrafenden Stimulus vermitteln, nur sehr wenig bekannt. Unter Anwendung des funktionellen optischen Calcium Imaging konnte im Rahmen der Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die Projektionen von dopaminergen Neuronen im Bereich der Loben der Pilzkörper schwach auf die Präsentation eines Duftes, jedoch sehr stark auf eine Stimulation durch einen Elektroschock antworten. Nach mehrmaliger Paarung eines Duftes mit einem Elektroschock während eines Trainings, verlängert sich die Aktivität dieser dopaminergen Neurone auf den bestraften Duft hin im Test ohne Elektroschock drastisch, während die Antwort auf den Kontrollduft keine signifikanten Veränderungen aufweist. Während bei Säugetieren belohnende Reize bei appetitiven Lernvorgängen über dopaminerge Neurone vermittelt werden, spielen bei Drosophila diese Neurone offensichtlich eine Rolle bei der aversiven Konditionierung. Jedoch blieb, auch wenn sich die Rolle des Dopamins im Laufe der Evolution geändert zu haben scheint, die Fähigkeit dieses Neuronentyps, nicht nur auf einen eintreffenden verstärkenden Stimulus zu reagieren, sondern diesen auch vorhersagen zu können, zwischen Säugern und Drosophila erhalten.
In this thesis two genes involved in causing neurodegenerative phenotypes in Drosophila are described. olk (omb-like), a futsch allele, is a micotubule associated protein (MAP) which is homologous to MAP1B and sws (swiss cheese) a serine esterase of yet unknown function within the nervous system. The lack of either one of these genes causes progressive neurodegeneration in two different ways. The sws mutant is characterized by general degeneration of the adult nervous system, glial hyperwrapping and neuronal apoptosis. Deletion of NTE (neuropathy target esterase), the SWS homolog in vertebrates, has been shown to cause a similar pattern of progressive neural degeneration in mice. NTE reacts with organophosphates causing axonal degeneration in humans. Inhibition of vertebrate NTE is insufficient to induce paralyzing axonal degeneration, a reaction called "aging reaction" is necessary for the disease to set in. It is hypothesized that a second "non-esterase" function of NTE is responsible for this phenomenon. The biological function of SWS within the nervous system is still unknown. To characterize the function of this protein several transgenic fly lines expressing different mutated forms of SWS were established. The controlled expression of altered SWS protein with the GAL4/UAS system allowed the analysis of isolated parts of the protein that were altered in the respective constructs. The characterization of a possible non-esterase function was of particular interest in these experiments. One previously described aberrant SWS construct lacking the first 80 amino acids (SWSΔ1-80) showed a deleterious, dominant effect when overexpressed and was used as a model for organophosphate (OP) intoxication. This construct retains part of its detrimental effect even without catalytically active serine esterase function. This strongly suggests that there is another characteristic to SWS that is not defined solely by its serine esterase activity. Experiments analyzing the lipid contents of sws mutant, wildtype (wt) and SWS overexpressing flies gave valuable insights into a possible biological function of SWS. Phosphatidylcholine, a major component of cell membranes, accumulates in sws mutants whereas it is depleted in SWS overexpressing flies. This suggests that SWS is involved in phosphatidylcholine regulation. The produced α-SWS antibody made it possible to study the intracellular localization of SWS. Images of double stainings with ER (endoplasmic reticulum) markers show that SWS is in great part localized to the ER. This is consistent with findings of SWS/ NTE localization in yeast and mouse cells. The olk mutant also shows progressive neurodegeneration but it is more localized to the olfactory system and mushroom bodies. Regarding specific cell types it seemed that specifically the projection neurons (PNs) are affected. A behavioral phenotype consisting of poor olfactory memory compared to wt is also observed even before histologically visible neurodegeneration sets in. Considering that the projection neurons connect the antennal lobes to the mushroom bodies, widely regarded as the "learning center", this impairment was expected. Three mutants where identified (olk1-3) by complementation analysis with the previously known futschN94 allele and sequencing of the coding sequence of olk1 revealed a nonsense mutation early in the protein. Consistent with the predicted function of Futsch as a microtubule associated protein (MAP), abnormalities are most likely due to a defective microtubule network and defects in axonal transport. In histological sections a modified cytoskeletal network is observed and western blots confirm a difference in the amount of tubulin present in the olk1 mutant versus the wt. The elaboration of neuronal axons and dendrites is dependent on a functional cytoskeleton. Observation of transport processes in primary neural cultures derived from olk1 mutant flies also showed a reduction of mitochondrial transport. Interaction with the fragile X mental retardation gene (dfmr1) was observed with the olk mutant. A dfmr1/ olk1 double mutant shows an ameliorated phenotype compared to the olk1 single mutant. tau, another MAP gene, was also shown to be able to partially rescue the olk1 mutant.
Sugar reward learning in Drosophila : neuronal circuits in Drosophila associative olfactory learning
(2006)
Genetic intervention in the fly Drosophila melanogaster has provided strong evidence that the mushroom bodies of the insect brain act as the seat of memory traces for aversive and appetitive olfactory learning (reviewed in Heisenberg, 2003). In flies, electroshock is mainly used as negative reinforcer. Unfortunately this fact complicates a comparative consideration with other inscets as most studies use sugar as positive reinforcer. For example, several lines of evidence from honeybee and moth have suggested another site, the antennal lobe, to house neuronal plasticity underlying appetitive olfactory memory (reviewed in Menzel, 2001; Daly et al., 2004). Because of this I focused my work mainly on appetitive olfactory learning. In the first part of my thesis, I used a novel genetic tool, the TARGET system (McGuire et al., 2003), which allows the temporally controlled expression of a given effector gene in a defined set of cells. Comparing effector genes which either block neurotransmission or ablate cells showed important differences, revealing that selection of the appropriate effector gene is critical for evaluating the function of neural circuits. In the second part, a new engram of olfactory memory in the Drosophila projection neurons is described by restoring Rutabaga adenlylate cyclase (rut-AC) activity specifically in these cells. Expression of wild-type rutabaga in the projection neurons fully rescued the defect in sugar reward memory, but not in aversive electric shock memory. No difference was found in the stability of the appetitive memories rescued either in projection neurons or Kenyon cells. In the third part of the thesis I tried to understand how the reinforcing signals for sugar reward are internally represented. In the bee Hammer (1993) described a single octopaminergic neuron – called VUMmx1 – that mediates the sugar stimulus in associative olfactory reward learning. Analysis of single VUM neurons in the fly (Selcho, 2006) identified a neuron with a similar morphology as the VUMmx1 neuron. As there is a mutant in Drosophila lacking the last enzymatic step in octopamine synthesis (Monastirioti et al., 1996), Tyramine beta Hydroxylase, I was able to show that local Tyramine beta Hydroxylase expression successfully rescued sugar reward learning. This allows to conclude that about 250 cells including the VUM cluster are sufficient for mediating the sugar reinforcement signal in the fly. The description of a VUMmx1 similar neuron and the involvement of the VUM cluster in mediating the octopaminergic sugar stimulus are the first steps in establishing a neuronal map for US processing in Drosophila. Based on this work several experiments are contrivable to reach this ultimate goal in the fly. Taken together, the described similiarities between Drosophila and honeybee regarding the memory organisation in MBs and PNs and the proposed internal representation of the sugar reward suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for appetitive olfactory learning in insects.
It has been known for a long time that Drosophila can learn to discriminate not only between different odorants but also between different concentrations of the same odor. Olfactory associative learning has been described as a pairing between odorant and electric shock and since then, most of the experiments conducted in this respect have largely neglected the dual properties of odors: quality and intensity. For odorant-coupled short-term memory, a biochemical model has been proposed that mainly relies on the known cAMP signaling pathway. Mushroom bodies (MB) have been shown to be necessary and sufficient for this type of memory, and the MB-model of odor learning and short-term memory was established. Yet, theoretically, based on the MB-model, flies should not be able to learn concentrations if trained to the lower of the two concentrations in the test. In this thesis, I investigate the role of concentration-dependent learning, establishment of a concentration-dependent memory and their correlation to the standard two-odor learning as described by the MB-model. In order to highlight the difference between learning of quality and learning of intensity of the same odor I have tried to characterize the nature of the stimulus that is actually learned by the flies, leading to the conclusion that during the training flies learn all possible cues that are presented at the time. The type of the following test seems to govern the usage of the information available. This revealed a distinction between what flies learned and what is actually measured. Furthermore, I have shown that learning of concentration is associative and that it is symmetrical between high and low concentrations. I have also shown how the subjective quality perception of an odor changes with changing intensity, suggesting that one odor can have more than one scent. There is no proof that flies perceive a range of concentrations of one odorant as one (odor) quality. Flies display a certain level of concentration invariance that is limited and related to the particular concentration. Learning of concentration is relevant only to a limited range of concentrations within the boundaries of concentration invariance. Moreover, under certain conditions, two chemically distinct odorants could smell sufficiently similarly such, that they can be generalized between each other like if they would be of the same quality. Therefore, the abilities of the fly to identify the difference in quality or in intensity of the stimuli need to be distinguished. The way how the stimulus is analyzed and processed speaks in favor of a concept postulating the existence of two separated memories. To follow this concept, I have proposed a new form of memory called odor intensity memory (OIM), characterized it and compared it to other olfactory memories. OIM is independent of some members of the known cAMP signaling pathway and very likely forms the rutabaga-independent component of the standard two-odor memory. The rutabaga-dependent odor memory requires qualitatively different olfactory stimuli. OIM is revealed within the limits of concentration invariance where the memory test gives only sub-optimal performance for the concentration differences but discrimination of odor quality is not possible at all. Based on the available experimental tools, OIM seems to require the mushroom bodies the same as odor-quality memory but its properties are different. Flies can memorize the quality of several odorants at a given time but a newly formed memory of one odor interferes with the OIM stored before. In addition, the OIM lasts only 1 to 3 hours - much shorter than the odor-quality memory.
In this thesis, I introduce the Virtual Brain Protocol, which facilitates applications of the Standard Brain of Drosophila melanogaster. By providing reliable and extensible tools for the handling of neuroanatomical data, this protocol simplifies and organizes the recurring tasks involved in these applications. It is demonstrated that this protocol can also be used to generate average brains, i.e. to combine recordings of several brains with the same features such that the common features are emphasized. One of the most important steps of the Virtual Insect Protocol is the aligning of newly recorded data sets with the Standard Brain. After presenting methods commonly applied in a biological or medical context to align two different recordings, it is evaluated to what extent this alignment can be automated. To that end, existing Image Processing techniques are assessed. I demonstrate that these techniques do not satisfy the requirements needed to guarantee sensible alignments between two brains. Then, I analyze what needs to be taken into account in order to formulate an algorithm which satisfies the needs of the protocol. In the last chapter, I derive such an algorithm using methods from Information Theory, which bases the technique on a solid mathematical foundation. I show how Bayesian Inference can be applied to enhance the results further. It is demonstrated that this approach yields good results on very noisy images, detecting apparent boundaries between structures. The same approach can be extended to take additional knowledge into account, e.g. the relative position of the anatomical structures and their shape. It is shown how this extension can be utilized to segment a newly recorded brain automatically.
Chemical neurotransmission is a complex process of central importance for nervous system function. It is thought to be mediated by the orchestration of hundreds of proteins for its successful execution. Several synaptic proteins have been shown to be relevant for neurotransmission and many of them are highly conserved during evolution- suggesting a universal mechanism for neurotransmission. This process has checkpoints at various places like, neurotransmitter uptake into the vesicles, relocation of the vesicles to the vicinity of calcium channels in order to facilitate Ca2+ induced release thereby modulating the fusion probability, formation of a fusion pore to release the neurotransmitter and finally reuptake of the vesicles by endocytosis. Each of these checkpoints has now become a special area of study and maintains its own importance for the understanding of the overall process. Ca2+ induced release occurs at specialized membrane structures at the synapse known as the active zones. These are highly ordered electron dense grids and are composed of several proteins which assist the synaptic vesicles in relocating in the vicinity of Ca2+ channels thereby increasing their fusion probability and then bringing about the vesicular fusion itself. All the protein modules needed for these processes are thought to be held in tight arrays at the active zones, and the functions of a few have been characterized so far at the vertebrate active zones. Our group is primarily interested in characterizing the molecular architecture of the Drosophila synapse. Due to its powerful genetics and well-established behavioural assays Drosophila is an excellent system to investigate neuronal functioning. Monoclonal antibodies (MABs) from a hybridoma library against Drosophila brain are routinely used to detect novel proteins in the brain in a reverse genetic approach. Upon identification of the protein its encoding genetic locus is characterized and a detailed investigation of its function is initiated. This approach has been particularly useful to detect synaptic proteins, which may go undetected in a forward genetic approach due to lack of an observable phenotype. Proteins like CSP, Synapsin and Sap47 have been identified and characterized using this approach so far. MAB nc82 has been one of the shortlisted antibodies from the same library and is widely used as a general neuropil marker due to the relative transparency of immunohistochemical whole mount staining obtained with this antibody. A careful observation of double stainings at the larval neuromuscular junctions with MAB nc82 and other pre and post-synaptic markers strongly suggested an active zone localization of the nc82 antigen. Synaptic architecture is well characterized in Drosophila at the ultrastructural level. However, molecular details for many synaptic components and especially for the active zone are almost entirely unknown. A possible localization at the active zone for the nc82 antigen served as the motivation to initiate its biochemical characterization and the identification of the encoding gene. In the present thesis it is shown by 2-D gel analysis and mass spectrometry that the nc82 antigen is a novel active zone protein encoded by a complex genetic locus on chromosome 2R. By RT-PCR exons from three open reading frames previously annotated as separate genes are demonstrated to give rise to a transcript of at least 5.5 kb. Northern blots produce a prominent signal of 11 kb and a weak signal of 2 kb. The protein encoded by the 5.5 kb transcript is highly conserved amongst insects and has at its N-terminus significant homology to the previously described vertebrate active zone protein ELKS/ERC/CAST. Bioinformatic analysis predicts coiled-coil domains spread all over the sequence and strongly suggest a function involved in organizing or maintaining the structure of the active zone. The large C-terminal region is highly conserved amongst the insects but has no clear homologues in veretebrates. For a functional analysis of this protein transgenic flies expressing RNAi constructs under the control of the Gal4 regulated enhancer UAS were kindly provided by the collaborating group of S.Sigrist (Gِttingen). A strong pan-neuronal knockdown of the nc82 antigen by transgenic RNAi expression leads to embryonic lethality. A relatively weaker RNAi expression results in behavioural deficits in adult flies including unstable flight and impaired walking behavior. Due to this peculiar phenotype as observed in the first knockdown studies the gene was named “bruchpilot” (brp) encoding the protein “Bruchpilot (BRP)” (German for crash pilot). A pan-neuronal as well as retina specific downregulation of this protein results in loss of ON and OFF transients in ERG recordings indicating dysfunctional synapses. Retina specific downregulation also shows severely impaired optomotor behaviour. Finally, at an ultrastructural level BRP downregulation seems to impair the formation of the characteristic T-shaped synaptic ribbons at the active zones without significantly altering the overall synaptic architecture (in collaboration with E.Asan). Vertebrate active zone protein Bassoon is known to be involved in attaching the synaptic ribbons to the active zones as an adapter between active zone proteins RIBEYE and ERC/CAST. A mutation in Bassoon results in a floating synaptic ribbon phenotype. No protein homologous to Bassoon has been observed in Drosophila. BRP downregulation also results in absence of attached synaptic ribbons at the active zones. This invites the speculation of an adapter like function for BRP in Drosophila. However, while Bassoon mutant mice are viable, BRP deficit in addition to the structural phenotype also results in severe behavioural and physiological anomalies and even stronger downregulation causes embryonic lethality. This therefore suggests an additional and even more important role for BRP in development and normal functioning of synapses in Drosophila and also in other insects. However, how BRP regulates synaptic transmission and which other proteins are involved in this BRP dependant pathway remains to be investigated. Such studies certainly will attract prominent attention in the future.
The development of ethanol tolerance is due to changes in synaptic plasticity. Since the mechanisms mediating synaptic plasticity are probably defective in the mutant hangAE10, it was a goal of the present study to find out how HANG contributes to synaptic plasticity. In particular, it was important to clarify in which neuronal process HANG plays a role. Antibody stainings against HANG revealed that the protein is localized in all neuronal nuclei of larval and adult brains; the staining is absent in hangAE10, thus confirming that this P-element insertion stock is a protein null for HANG. Detailed analysis of the subnuclear distribution of HANG showed that HANG immunoreactivity is enriched at distinct spots in the nucleus in a speckled pattern; these speckles are found at the inside of the nuclear membrane and do not colocalize with chromatin nor with the nucleolus; thus, HANG is probably involved in the stabilization, processing or export of RNAs. As synaptic plasticity can be studied in single neurons at the larval neuromuscular junction, the morphology of the synaptic terminals of hangAE10 mutants was analyzed at muscle 6/7, segment A4. These studies revealed that hangAE10 mutants display a 40 % increase in bouton number and axonal branch length; in addition, some boutons have an abnormal hourglass-like shape, suggesting that they are arrested in a semi-separated state following the initiation of bouton division. The increase in bouton number of hang mutants is mainly due to an increase in numbers of type Ib boutons. The analysis of the distribution of several synaptic markers in hang mutants did not show abnormalities. The presynaptic expression of HANG in hang mutants rescues the increase in bouton number and axonal branch length, thus proving that the phenotypes seen in the P-element insertion hangAE10 are attributable to the lack of HANG rather than to effects of the P-element marker rosy or to a secondary hit on the same chromsome during mutagensis. This finding is further supported by the fact that postsynaptic expression of HANG does not rescue the abnormal NMJ morphology of hangAE10. Alterations in cAMP levels regulate the number of boutons; since hang mutants display an increase in bouton number, the questions was whether this morphological abnormality was due to defects in cAMP signalling. To test this hypothesis, hangAE10 NMJs were compared to those of the hypomorphic allele dnc1 that has a defective cAMP cascade. Some aspects of the NMJ phenotype (e.g. the increase in bouton number and the unaltered ratio of active zones per bouton area) are similar in hangAE10 and dnc1, other differ. Expression of a UAS-dnc transgene in hangAE10 mutants does not modify the phenotype. In summary, the results of this study indicate that nuclear protein HANG might be involved in isoform-specific splicing of genes required for synaptic plasticity at the NMJ.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden visuelle Einflüsse auf die Beinplatzierung beim Laufen und auf das Kletterverhalten der Fliege Drosophila melanogaster analysiert. Während sich die Beinplatzierung als vorwiegend taktil gesteuert herausstellte, ist das Klettern sowohl bezüglich der Entscheidung zur Durchführung (Motivationssteuerung) als auch bezüglich der Ausführung selbst unter präziser visueller Kontrolle. Für die Untersuchungen wurde ein Lücken-Überwindungsparadigma entwickelt und die Kinematik des Kletterns über verschieden breite Lücken mit einer eigens entwickelten 3D-Hochgeschwindigkeits-Videoanlage erstmals quantitativ beschrieben. Drei wesentliche Verhaltensanpassungen sorgen dafür, dass die Fliegen die maximal mögliche Spannbreite ihrer Beine voll ausnützen und Lücken von bis zu 170% der eigenen Körperlänge überqueren können. Das Kletterverhalten wird abhängig von der Lückenbreite initiiert und sinnlose Versuche an unüberwindbar breiten Lücken vermieden. Die visuelle Lückenbreitenmessung wurde analysiert; sie beruht auf der Auswertung von Bewegungsparallaxe beim Anlauf. Einige Erkenntnisse aus der Laufforschung an Fliegen wurden auf einem im Rahmen dieser Arbeit modifizierten hexapoden Laufroboter umgesetzt und die Verbesserungen quantifiziert.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden offene Fragen zur Objektwahl, zur Objektbeibehaltung und zur Aufgabe von Zielobjekten bei laufenden Taufliegen (Drosophila melanogaster) untersucht. Die Erkenntnisse zur Objektwahl wurden als kybernetisches Modell formuliert, auf einem eigens dafür konstruierten, autonom navigierenden Roboter mit Kameraauge implementiert und dessen Verhalten bei verschiedenen Landmarkenkonstellationen quantitativ mit dem Orientierungsverhalten laufender Fliegen verglichen. Es war bekannt, dass Drosophila in einer Wahlsituation zwischen unterschiedlich weit entfernten Objekten eine ausgeprägte Präferenz für nahe Objekte zeigt, wobei die Entfernung über das Ausmaß der retinalen Bildverschiebung auf dem Auge (Parallaxe) erfasst wird. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde analysiert, ob die Parallaxe streng aus der Eigenbewegung der Fliege resultieren muss oder ob Eigenbewegung der Objekte Nähe vortäuschen und deren Attraktivität erhöhen kann. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Präferenz für ein Objekt bei Drosophila umso größer wird, je mehr Bewegung dessen Abbild auf der Retina erzeugt; die relative Verschiebung des Objektabbildes muss dabei nicht mit der Eigenbewegung der Fliege gekoppelt sein. Überraschenderweise verschwand die Präferenz für nahe Objekte, wenn eine zusammenstehende Gruppe aus einer nahen und mehreren fernen Objekten präsentiert wurden, solange sie zusammen einen Sehwinkel von weniger als etwa 90° einnahmen. Diese Beobachtung ist konform mit einer Vorstellung, wonach Bewegung über größere Augenbereiche integriert und nicht einzelnen Objekten zugeordnet wird. Obwohl Drosophila bei gleichem Präsentationsort auf der Retina die größere parallaktische Bewegung bevorzugte, wurden bei gleicher Entfernung dennoch frontalere gegenüber lateraleren Objekten bevorzugt. Es wird postuliert, dass der frontale und der caudale Sehbereich eine Verstärkung erfahren, die die physikalisch bedingt geringere Parallaxe überkompensiert. Laufende Fliegen reagieren verzögert auf die Präsentation eines Objekts; dies wird im Sinne einer zeitlichen Bewegungsintegration interpretiert. Die darauf folgende Richtungsänderung hängt vom Präsentationswinkel des Objektes ab. Erscheint das Objekt frontolateral, findet eine Hinwendung statt, erscheint es caudolateral, kommt es bevorzugt zur Abwendung. Eine weitere wichtige kognitive Leistung der Fliege ist das Aufgeben eines zuvor ausgewählten Ziels, wenn sich dieses Ziel während des Anlaufs als unerreichbar herausstellt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass Fliegen mit stark reduzierten Pilzkörpern erheblich mehr Zeit benötigen als wildtypische Fliegen, um vom gewählten Zielobjekt abzulassen. Dieser dem Perseveranzverhalten bei Parkinson-kranken Menschen ähnliche Phänotyp wurde unabhängig von der Methode der Ausschaltung der Pilzkörper gefunden. Die Dauer der Perseveranz nahm mit zunehmender Attraktivität des Zielobjekts, d. h. mit abnehmender Distanz, zu. Es wird vorgeschlagen, dass die Pilzkörper für die Evaluierung von eingehender sensorischer Information oder für Entscheidungsfindungen im Allgemeinen benötig werden. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurde ein Minimalmodell für die visuelle Orientierung nach Landmarken entwickelt. Das Modell beinhaltet eine zeitliche Integration des optischen Flusses in einem frontolateralen und einem caudolateralen Kompartiment pro Auge. Je nachdem, in welchem Kompartiment eine festgesetzte Schwelle zuerst erreicht wird, kommt es entweder zu einer Hin- (frontolateral) oder zu einer Abwendungsreaktion (caudolateral). Eine Gewichtungsfunktion kompensiert die geringe parallaktische Verschiebung in diesen Sehregionen. Das Modell wurde in einem mobilen Roboter mit Kameraauge implementiert und mit dem visuellen Orientierungsverhalten der Fliege quantitativ verglichen. Der Roboter war in der Lage, viele Aspekte der Landmarkenwahl von laufenden Fliegen erfolgreich zu reproduzieren und fliegenähnliches, autonomes Orientierungsverhalten unter verschiedenen Landmarkenkonfigurationen zu zeigen.
SAP47 ist ein Synapsenassoziiertes Protein von 47 kDa aus Drosophila melanogaster, das zu einer neuen Proteinfamilie gehört. Um eine Sap47 Mutante zu erzeugen wurden drei Methoden eingesetzt: Gezielte Mutagenese durch homologe Rekombination, RNA interference (RNAi) und Transposon Remobilisierung. Um einen Interaktionspartner für das SAP47 Protein zu identifizieren wurden ein Yeast-Two-Hybrid System und das "CytoTrap" Verfahren eingesetzt.
In the last years it became evident that many cytokines do not only bind to their specific cell surface receptors but also interact with components of the extracellular matrix. Mainly in Drosophila, several enzymes were identified, that are involved in glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Mutations in these enzymes mostly result in disturbances of several signaling pathways like hedgehog, wingless, FGF or dpp. In most cases it was, due to these pleiotropic effects, not possible to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for single pathways. The aim of this work was to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for the TGF-ß superfamily member DPP. Based on the fact that DPP is highly homologous to human BMP-2, the basic N-terminus of mature DPP was mutated, which has been shown to contain a heparin-binding site in BMP-2. Thus, a wildtype variant (D-MYC), a deletion variant (D-DEL), which lacked the whole basic part of the N-terminus and a duplication variant (D-DUP), which contained a second copy of the basic core moitiv, were generated. In order to characterise the variants biochemically, they were expressed in E.coli and refolded in a bioactive form. In chicken limbbud assay, the deletion variant was much more active than the wildtype variant, comparable to data of BMP-2. By means of biacore mesurements with the immobilised ectodomain of the high affinity type I receptor thick veins, it could be demonstrated, that the variants differ only in matrix binding and not in their receptor affinity. Different matrix binding was shown by Heparin FPLC. The biological relevance of the matrix interaction of DPP was examined in transgenic flies. To allow expression of the different variants under the control of various Gal4 driver lines, they were cloned behind an UAS-promoter site. In early tracheal development, a strong dependence of DPP signaling on matrix binding was observed. While ectopic expression of the deletion variant caused only minor defects, the branching pattern was strongly disturbed by overexpression of wildtype and duplication variant. Ubiquitous expression of the variants in the wing imaginal disc caused overproliferation of the disc and expansion of the omb target gene expression. The extent of phenotypes correlated with the matrix binding ability of the variants. Corresponding disturbances of the wing vein pattern was observed in adult flies. By the crossing of different dpp allels, transheterozygous animals were created, that lack dpp only in imaginal discs. Expression of the variants under the control of a suitable dpp-Gal4 driver line revealed insights into the biological relevance of matrix binding on DPP gradient formation and specific target gene activation in wing imaginal discs. It was shown, that all variants were able to generate a functional DPP gradient with correct expression of the target genes omb and spalt. Again a correlation between extent of target gene domains and matrix binding ability of the corresponding variants was found. Thus by mutating the N-terminus of DPP, it could be shown that this is responsible for DPP`s matrix interaction. Also the relevance of matrix binding of DPP in different tissues was examined. It turned out, that the reorganisation of tracheal branching by DPP strongly depends on matrix interactions wheras the establishing of a gradient in wing imaginal discs depends only gradually on matrix interactions. Based on these data a model for the action of DPP/TGFßs as morphogens was established. While a deletion of matrix binding leads to a decrease in specific bioactivity of the cytokine, the latter is increased by additional matrix binding sites.
Cystein String Proteine (CSPs) wurden als synaptische Vesikelproteine entdeckt. In Drosophila werden sie in den funktionellen Synapsen und sekretorischen Organellen aller Entwicklungsstufen exprimiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass CSPs an der regulierten Neurotransmitterausschüttung beteiligt sind und mehrere, von Insekten bis zum Menschen konservierte Domänen besitzen: eine N-terminale Phosphorylierungsstelle der Protein Kinase A (PKA), eine J-Domäne mit 50%iger Homologie zum bakteriellen Chaperone-Protein DnaJ, eine Linker-Domäne, einen Cystein String aus elf aufeinander folgenden Cysteinen, die durch zwei Cystein-Paare flankiert werden und einen variableren C-Terminus. Es wurden Interaktionen mit den Proteinen HSC70, SGT, Syntaxin, Synaptobrevin/VAMP, verschiedenen Untereinheiten von G-Proteinen, Synaptotagmin, sowie spannungsabhängigen Ca2+-Kanälen beschrieben. csp-Nullmutanten CspU1 von Drosophila melanogaster zeigen einen temperatursensitiven Phänotyp, in dem adulte Fliegen von CspU1 reversibel bei 37°C innerhalb von drei Minuten paralysieren. An der neuromuskulären Synapse dritter Larven von CspU1 kann bei nicht-permissiver Temperatur von 32°C eine reversible Blockade der synaptischen Transmission beobachtet werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten mit Hilfe des larvalen Nerv-Muskel-Präparats dritter Larven elektrophysiologische Untersuchungen an verschiedenen csp-Mutanten durchgeführt werden. Hierdurch sollte die Bedeutung der einzelnen Domänen für die Funktion von csp weiter aufgeklärt werden. Am larvalen Nerv-Muskel-Präparat von Drosophila ist eine Arbeit auf Einzel-Zell-Niveau möglich. Die Segmentierung, die wiederkehrende Anordnung von Muskeln und innervierenden Motoneuronen, sowie das Vorkommen vieler auch im Gehirn von Drosophila lokalisierter synaptischer Proteine machen die larvale neuromuskuläre Synapse für die vorliegenden Fragestellungen. Wie in vielen anderen Arbeiten, wurden elektrophysiologische Messungen an dem Longitudinalmuskel 6 durchgeführt. Alle Messungen evozierter Muskelpotentiale (EJP) wurden, wenn nicht anders erwähnt, mit 0,2Hz Stimulusfrequenz durchgeführt. Die Reiz-Intensität wurde an jedes Präparat individuell angepasst und betrug das 2 ½ -fache des Initial-Schwellenwertes, bei dem ein vollständiges EJP ausgelöst wurde. Zunächst konnte der in der Literatur beschriebene larvale Block der synaptischen Transmitterausschüttung bei erhöhter Temperatur nicht reproduziert, jedoch durch Rückkreuzungen der Nullmutante CspU1 gegen den Wildtyp w1118 wiederhergestellt werden. Das „Rescue“-Konstrukt scDNA1, welches die Grundlage für alle weiteren mutierten Formen von csp darstellt, rettete den larvalen temperatursensitiven Phänotyp im csp-Nullmutantenhintergrund von CspU1 vollständig. Larvale Mutanten der Linie SSP, bei denen der Cystein String durch einen Serin String ausgetauscht worden war (Serine-string protein), zeigten in Übereinstimmung mit den adulten Fliegen den bekannten temperatursensitiven Phänotyp. Larvale Mutanten der Linie CLP (Cysteine-less protein) zeigten im Gegensatz zu adulten Tieren dieser Linie keinen temperatursensitiven Phänotyp, sondern ein wildtypisches Verhalten. Für die Mutante L∆8, die im Nullmutantenhintergrund von CspU1 roc ein in der Linker-Domäne um acht Aminosäuren verkürztes CSP-Protein exprimiert, wurden verschiedene elektrophysiologische Phänotypen beobachtet: Larven der X-chromosomalen Linie zeigten den bekannten temperaturabhängigen Block der synaptischen Transmission. Larven der Insertionslinie für das 3. Chromosom zeigten keine Temperatursensitivität, sondern wildtypisches Verhalten. In immunhistochemischen Untersuchungen konnte für die X-chromosomale Linie eine deutlich schwächere Expression des L∆8-Proteins beobachtet werden. Larven der Linie C∆27, die ein im C-terminalen Bereich von CSP um 27 Aminosäuren verkürztes CSP-Protein exprimieren, im Nullmutantenhintergrund CspU1 roc konnten anhand des Phänotyps in zwei Gruppen unterteilt werden. Unabhängig vom Insertionsort zeigte eine Gruppe den bekannten larvalen temperatursensitiven Phänotyp. Die zweite Gruppe zeigte auch bei erhöhter Temperatur wildtypisches Verhalten. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde versucht, eine neue Deletionsmutante für csp durch Remobilisierung einer P-Insertion (P#1617, flybase, Bloomington) im ersten Exon zu erzeugen, da in der Nullmutante CspU1 möglicherweise auch benachbarte Gene betroffen sind. Nach Überprüfung der erzeugten Mutanten durch Western und Southern Blot, immunhistochemische Experimente und elektrophysiologische Untersuchungen am Nerv-Muskel-Präparat 3. Larven konnte keine Deletionsmutante mit temperaturabhängigem Phänotyp isoliert werden, die ausschließlich csp betraf.
Funktionelle Charakterisierung neuer Proteine der inneren Kernmembran von Drosophila melanogaster: Drosophila Lamin B Rezeptor (dLBR), ein integrales Membranprotein der inneren Kernmembran; Bocksbeutel alpha und Bocksbeutel beta, LEM-Domänen Proteine sowie deren potentiellen Interaktionspartner Drosophila Barrier-to-Autointegration Factor (dBAF).
Die Exozytose von Neurotransmittern und Peptiden während der Verarbeitung und Weiterleitung von Reizen im Nervensystem wird durch eine komplexe Maschinerie von Proteinen reguliert. Das konservierte Cysteine String Protein (CSP), das gebunden an synaptische und andere sekretorische Vesikel vorliegt, konnte in den vergangenen Jahren als Teil in diesen Prozess eingeordnet werden. Die Frage nach der genauen Funktion von CSP während der Exozytose ist allerdings weiterhin offen. CSP-Nullmutanten in Drosophila melanogaster zeigen temperatursensitive Paralyse und eine extrem verkürzte Lebenserwartung, gepaart mit verminderter Fertilität. In larvalen Nerv-Muskel Präparaten kommt es bei Temperaturen über 29°C zu einem reversiblen Block der elektrophysiologisch messbaren synaptischen Transmission. Die Primärstruktur des Cysteine String Proteins kann in folgende konservierte Sequenzabschnitte unterteilt werden: eine N-terminale Protein Kinase A Phosphorylierungsstelle, eine Region mit Homologie zu einer charakteristischen Domäne von DnaJ-Proteinen (DnaJ-Domäne), einen als Linkerregion bezeichneten Abschnitt, eine cysteinreiche Sequenz, die bei Drosophila aus dem namensgebenden Strang von 11 aufeinanderfolgenden Cysteinen flankiert von 2 Cysteinpaaren besteht, und einen schwächer konservierten C-Terminus, in dem sich auch einzelne Spleißvarianten unterscheiden. Versuche mit Vertebraten konnten zeigen, dass CSP in einem trimeren Komplex aus Hsc70/CSP/SGT vorkommt und bei der Exozytose wahrscheinlich als molekulares Co-Chaperon wirkt. Der Cysteinstrang liegt mehrfach palmityliert vor und ist für die Zielfindung des Proteins zur Vesikelmembran essentiell. In vorangegangenen Arbeiten wurde begonnen, bei Drosophila durch gezielte Mutagenese und Keimbahntransformation die Rolle des Cysteinstrangs, der Linkerregion und des C-Terminus für die Funktion des CSP zu analysieren. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden in transgenen Fliegen die Eigenschaften von Isoformen mit vier unterschiedlich mutierten Varianten des Cysteinstrangs (CSLP, SCSP, CLP, SSP) und je Deletionen in der Linkerregion (LΔ8) und im C-terminalen Bereich (CΔ27) charakterisiert. Die subzelluläre Verteilung und veränderte Membranbindungseigenschaften dieser Proteine wurden mithilfe von Membranfraktionierung und Glycerindichtegradienten von Homogenaten der transgenen Mutanten aufgezeigt. Die Isoformen CLP und SSP sind aufgrund der fehlenden Palmitylierung nicht an die Membran der synaptischen Vesikel gebunden, während die Isoform CSLP sowohl in der Vesikelmembranfraktion als auch als lösliches Protein nachgewiesen werden kann. Die flankierenden Cysteinpaare und die verbliebenen Cysteine in den Isoformen CSLP und SCSP erfüllen offenbar noch teilweise die Aufgabe des Cysteinstrangs bei der Zielfindung der Proteine. Eine Depalmitylierung mit Hydroxylamin löst das verkürzte SCSP Protein ebensowenig aus der Membran wie das intakte CSP. Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchungen stehen im Einklang mit immunhistochemischen Befunden. Die Deletion bzw. Substitution der zentralen 11 Cysteine in den Isoformen CSLP, CLP und SSP äußert sich in den transgenen Fliegen in einer gleichmäßigeren Verteilung der Proteine, die nicht mehr wie im Wildtyp auf das synaptische Neuropil beschränkt ist. Keine der Isoformen mit verändertem Cysteinstrang ist in der Lage die Funktion des wildtypischen CSP zu übernehmen, da die adulten transgenen Fliegen den temperatursensitiven Phänotyp und eine kurze Lebensdauer ähnlich den Csp-Nullmutanten zeigen. Die Proteinisoformen LΔ8 und CΔ27 dagegen lassen in den biochemischen Analysen keine Abweichung vom Wildtyp erkennen und weisen auch eine wildtypische Verteilung in Kryostat-Gehirnschnitten auf. Die Deletion in der Linkerregion in der Isoform LΔ8 scheint die Funktion des CSPs allerdings einzuschränken, da die entsprechenden transgenen Fliegen bereits bei 38°C, wildtypische Tiere dagegen erst bei 40°C paralysieren. Die in der Literatur beschriebene Interaktion zwischen Drosophila CSP und Syntaxin konnte für die transgen exprimierte größte CSP Isoform CSP1 in Immunpräzipitationsexperimenten mit Drosophila-Kopfhomogenat bestätigt werden. Die Frage nach einer Interaktion zwischen Syntaxin und den anderen untersuchten mutierten CSP-Isoformen bleibt dagegen offen. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Versuch, mithilfe des UAS/Gal4- und des Flippase/FRT -Systems die CSP-Expression räumlich und zeitlich zu kontrollieren. Dazu wurde aufgrund von Datenbankangaben eine minimale FRT-Sequenz aus Oligonukleotiden mit entsprechenden Linkern konstruiert. Das gesamte Csp-Gen beziehungsweise die Csp cDNA1 einschließlich der regulatorischen Sequenzen wurde zwischen zwei gleichgerichteten FRT-Sequenzen pW8 eingebracht. Die Keimbahntransformation führte zu mehreren transgenen Fliegenlinien. Nach aufwendigen Kreuzungen mit Gal4-, UAS-Flippase- und Csp-Null-Linien entstanden Fliegen im CSP-Nullhintergrund, welche eine durch die verwendete Gal4-Linie definierte Expression von Flippase zeigten und das FRT-Konstrukt trugen. Diese Fliegen sollten in Flippase positiven Bereichen keine CSP-Expression mehr zeigen. Verhaltensanalysen an solchen Tieren bei normaler und erhöhter Temperatur könnten dann Aufschluss über die Funktion der Zellen ohne CSP-Expression geben. Leider konnten die erwarteten Veränderungen in der CSP-Expression nicht beobachtet werden, obwohl alle Konstrukte sich nach einer Überprüfung als intakt erwiesen haben. Die Ursache für die fehlende Rekombination zwischen den FRT-Sequenzen ist möglicherweise in einer zu geringen Länge dieser Zielsequenz der Flippase zu suchen. Im dritten Abschnitt der Arbeit wird der Csp-Genlokus und seine benachbarten Gene vorgestellt, und die möglichen Auswirkungen der Deletionen in den zur Verfügung stehenden Mutanten CspU1, CspU1w und CspK16 diskutiert. Aufgrund der Daten aus dem Drosophila Genomprojekt lag die Spekulation nahe, dass der Phänotyp der Deletionsmutanten auch durch eine veränderte Expression der benachbarten Gene stromab- und stromaufwärts des Csp Gens beeinflusst werden könnte. Die Auswertung eines Northern Blots von PolyA+-RNA adulter Fliegen, sowie einfache Verhaltenstests an vorliegenden und neu generierten CSP-Nullmutanten konnten diesen Verdacht allerdings nicht bestätigen.
Zars and co-workers were able to localize an engram of aversive olfactory memory to the mushroom bodies of Drosophila (Zars et al., 2000). In this thesis, I followed up on this finding in two ways. Inspired by Zars et al. (2000), I first focused on the whether it would also be possible to localize memory extinction.While memory extinction is well established behaviorally, little is known about the underlying circuitry and molecular mechanisms. In extension to the findings by Zars et al (2000), I show that aversive olfactory memories remain localized to a subset of mushroom body Kenyon cells for up to 3 hours. Extinction localizes to the same set of Kenyon cells. This common localization suggests a model in which unreinforced presentations of a previously learned odorant intracellularly antagonizes the signaling cascades underlying memory formation. The second part also targets memory localization, but addresses appetitive memory. I show that memories for the same olfactory cue can be established through either sugar or electric shock reinforcement. Importantly, these memories localize to the same set of neurons within the mushroom body. Thus, the question becomes apparent how the same signal can be associated with different events. It is shown that two different monoamines are specificaly necessary for formation of either of these memories, dopamine in case of electric shock and octopamine in case of sugar memory, respectively. Taking the representation of the olfactory cue within the mushroom bodies into account, the data suggest that the two memory traces are located in the same Kenyon cells, but in separate subcellular domains, one modulated by dopamine, the other by octopamine. Taken together, this study takes two further steps in the search for the engram. (1) The result that in Drosophila olfactory learning several memories are organized within the same set of Kenyon cells is in contrast to the pessimism expressed by Lashley that is might not be possible to localize an engram. (2) Beyond localization, a possibible mechanism how several engrams about the same stimulus can be localized within the same neurons might be suggested by the models of subcellular organisation, as postulated in case of appetitive and aversive memory on the one hand and acquisition and extinction of aversive memory on the other hand.
Die Pilzkörper von Drosophila melanogaster stellen eine für die Lebensfähigkeit dieses Organismus entbehrliche Gehirnstruktur dar. Die Entwicklungsprozesse, die der Bildung dieser zentralnervösen Struktur zugrunde liegen, sind gut erforscht. Die neuronalen Stammzellen, die für die Bildung dieser Gehirnstruktur verantwortlich sind, sind identifiziert und experimentell gut zugänglich. Daher bietet sich die Drosophila-Pilzkörperentwicklung als neurogenetisches Modellsystem an, grundlegende Mechanismen der Gehirnentwicklung durch die Untersuchung von Pilzkörperstrukturmutanten zu erforschen. In dieser Arbeit wurde mushroom bodies undersized P1 (mbuP1) als eine durch Transposon- Insertion in den Casein-Kinase-2ß-Genlokus verursachte, hypomorphe Mutation identifiziert, die zu einer starken Verringerung der Anzahl der die Pilzkörper bildenden intrinsischen Neurone führt. Eine Reversion des mbuP1-Pilzkörperphänotyps konnte unter anderem durch die Expression von Casein-Kinase-2ß-(CK2ß)-Transgenen im mbuP1-Hintergrund erzielt werden. Durch Rekombination wurde ein fertiler mbuP1-Stamm etabliert, der nun die Untersuchung der zellulären mbuP1-Defekte ermöglicht. Eine partielle, letale Deletion der CK2ß-Transkriptionseinheit wurde erzeugt. Die Letalität dieser Deletion konnte sowohl durch ein genomisches CK2ß-Transgen als auch durch die ubiquitäre Expression einer CK2ß-cDNA gerettet, und hierdurch die essentielle Funktion der CK2ß-Transkriptionseinheit in Drosophila belegt werden. Durch die ubiquitäre Expression von in vitro-mutagenisierten CK2ß-cDNAs im CK2ß-Letalhintergrund wurde gezeigt, daß die Phosphorylierung der regulatorischen CK2ß-Untereinheit durch die katalytisch aktive CK2α-Untereinheit kein lebensnotwendiger Prozess ist. Gleichartige Experimente wurden zur Untersuchung der funktionellen Bedeutung eines CK2ß-Zinkfingermotivs und eines CK2ß-Destruction-Box-Motivs durchgeführt. Diese legen nahe, daß das Zinkfingermotiv im Gegensatz zum Destruction-Box-Motiv für die in vivo-Funktion der CK2ß-Untereinheit essentiell ist. Expression der in vitro-mutagenisierten CK2ß-cDNAs im mbuP1-Hintergrund werden die funktionelle Bedeutung der ausgetauschten Aminosäuren für die Pilzkörperentwicklung zeigen. Eine letale genetische Interaktion von mbuP1 mit einer Mutation des Drosophila-MAP-Kinase-Gens rolled (rlSem) und eine lebensfähige Interaktion von mbuP1 mit einer Mutation des Drosophila-S6-Kinase-p90rsk-Gens ignorant (ignP1), bei der Flügel- und Augenent-wicklungsdefekte zu beobachten sind, wurden gefunden. Es wurde zudem gezeigt, daß rlSem als Suppressor des Pilzkörperphänotyps eines schwächeren mbu-Allels wirkt. Hierdurch konnte eine Beteiligung der Casein-Kinase-2 an MAP-Kinase-Signalübertragungswegen wahrscheinlich gemacht werden.
Characterization of memories and ignorant (S6KII) mutants in operant conditioning in the heat-box
(2002)
Learning and memory processes of operant conditioning in the heat-box were analysed. Age, sex, and larval desity were not critical parameters influencing memory, while low or high activity levels of flies were negatively correlated with their performance. In a search for conditioning parameters leading to high retention scores, intermittent training was shown to give better results than continuous training. As the memory test is the immediate continuation of the conditioning phase just omitting reinforcement, we obtain a memory which consists of two components: a spatial preference for one side of the chamber and a stay-where-you-are effect in which the side preference is contaminated by the persistence of heat avoidance. Intermittent training strengthens the latter. In the next part, memory retention was investigated. Flies were trained in one chamber and tested in a second one after a brief reminder training. With this direct transfer, memory scores reflect an associative learning process in the first chamber. To investigate memory retention after extended time periods, indirect transfer experiments were performed. The fly was transferred to a different environment between training and test phases. With this procedure an after-effect of the training was still observed two hours later. Surprisingly, exposure to the chamber without conditioning also lead to a memory effect in the indirect transfer experiment. This exposure effect revealed a dispositional change that facilitates operant learning during the reminder training. The various memory effects are independent of the mushroom bodies. The transfer experiments and yoked controls proved that the heat-box records an associative memory. Even two hours after the operant conditioning procedure, the fly remembers that its position in the chamber controls temperature. The cAMP signaling cascade is involved in heat-box learning. Thus, amnesiac, rutabaga, and dunce mutants have an impaired learning / memory. Searching for, yet unknown, genes and signaling cascades involved in operant conditioning, a Drosophila melanogaster mutant screen with 1221 viable X-chromosome P-element lines was performed. 29 lines with consistently reduced heat avoidance/ learning or memory scores were isolated. Among those, three lines have the p[lacW] located in the amnesiac ORF, confirming that with the chosen candidate criteria the heat-box is a useful tool to screen for learning and /or memory mutants. The mutant line ignP1 (8522), which is defective in the gene encoding p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (S6KII), was investigated. The P-insertion of line ignP1 is the first Drosophila mutation in the ignorant (S6KII) gene. It has the transposon inserted in the first exon. Mutant males are characterized by low training performance, while females perform well in the standard experiment. Several deletion mutants of the ignorant gene have been generated. In precise jumpouts the phenotype was reverted. Imprecise jumpouts with a partial loss of the coding region were defective in operant conditioning. Surprisingly, null mutants showed wild-type behavior. This might indicate an indirect effect of the mutated ignorant gene on learning processes. In classical odor avoidance conditioning, ignorant null mutants showed a defect in the 3-min, 30-min, and 3-hr memory, while the precise jumpout of the transposon resulted in a reversion of the behavioral phenotype. Deviating results from operant and classical conditioning indicate different roles for S6KII in the two types of learning.
OMB and ORG-1
(2002)
Members of the T-box gene family encode transcription factors that play key roles during embryonic development and organogenesis of invertebrates and vertebrates. The defining feature of T-box proteins is an about 200 aa large, conserved DNA binding motif, the T domain. Their importance for proper development is highlighted by the dramatic phenotypes of T-box mutant animals. My thesis was mainly focused on two Drosophila T-box genes, optomotor-blind (omb) and optomotor-blind related 1 (org-1), and included (i) a genetic analysis of org-1 and (ii) the identification of molecular determinants within OMB and ORG-1 that confer functional specificity. (i) Genetic analysis of org-1 initially based on a behavioral Drosophila mutant, C31. C31 is a X-linked, recessive mutant and was mapped to 7E-F, the cytological region of org-1. This pleiotropic mutant is manifested in walking defects, structural aberrations in the central brain, and "held-out" wings. Molecular analysis revealed that C31 contains an insertion of a 5' truncated I retrotransposon within the 3' untranslated transcript of org-1, suggesting that C31 might represent the first org-1 mutant. Based on this hypothesis, we screened 44.500 F1 female offspring of EMS mutagenized males and C31 females for the "held-out" phenotype, but failed to isolate any C31 or org-1 mutant, although this mutagenesis was functional per se. Since we could not exclude the possibility that our failure is due to an idiosyncracy of C31, we intended not to rely on C31 in further genetic experiments and followed a reverse genetic strategy . All P element lines cytologically mapping to 7E-7F were characterized for their precise insertion sites. 13 of the 19 analyzed lines had P element insertions within a hot-spot 37 kb downstream of org-1. No P element insertions within org-1 could be identified, but several P element insertions were determined on either side of org-1. The org-1 nearest insertions were used for local-hop experiments, in which we associated 6 new genes with P insertions, but failed to target org-1. The closest P elements are still 10 kb away from org-1. Subsequently, we employed org-1 flanking P elements to induce precise deletions in 7E-F spanning org-1. Two org-1 flanking P elements were brought together on a recombinant chromosome. Remobilization of P elements in cis configuration frequently results in deletions with the P element insertion sites as deficiency endpoints. In a first attempt, we expected to identify deficiencies by screening for C31 alleles. 8 new C31 alleles could be isolated. The new C31 chromosomes, however, did not carry the desired deletion. Molecular analysis indicated that C31 is not caused by aberrations in org-1, but by mutations in a distal locus. We repeated the P element remobilization and screened for the absence of P element markers. 4 lethal chromosomes could be isolated with a deletion of the org-1 locus. (ii) The consequences of ectopic org-1 were analyzed using UAS-org-1 transgenic flies and a number of different Gal4 driver lines. Misexpression of org-1 during imaginal development interfered with the normal development of many organs and resulted in flies with a plethora of phenotypes. These include a homeotic transformation of distal antenna (flagellum) into distal leg structures, a strong size reduction of the legs along their proximo-distal axis, and stunted wings. Like ectopic org-1, ectopic omb leads to dramatic changes of normal developmental pathways in Drosophila as well. dpp-Gal4/ UAS-omb flies are late pupal lethal and show an ectopic pair of wings and largely reduced eyes. GMR-Gal4 driven ectopic omb expression in the developing eye causes a degeneration of the photoreceptor cells, while GMR-Gal4/ UAS-org-1 flies have intact eyes. Hence, ectopic org-1 and omb induce profound phenotypes that are qualitatively different for these homologous genes. To begin to address the question where within OMB and ORG-1 the specificity determinants reside, we conceptionally subdivided both proteins into three domains and tested the relevance ofthese domains for functional specificity in vivo. The single domains were cloned and used as modules to assemble all possible omb-org-1 chimeric trans- genes. A method was developed to determine the relative expression strength of different UAS-transgenes, allowing to compare the various transgenic constructs for qualitative differences only, excluding different transgene quantities. Analysis of chimeric omb-org-1 transgenes with the GMR-Gal4 driver revealed that all three OMB domains contribute to functional specificity.
Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen des Menschen sind eines der Hauptfelder molekularer neurobiologischer Grundlagenforschung. Um generell molekulare, komplizierte Vorgänge in vivo untersuchen zu können, nutzt man seit geraumer Zeit Modellorganismen wie Caenorhabditis elegans oder Drosophila melanogaster. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Drosophila-Neurodegenerationsmutante loe (löchrig) beschrieben, die als Modell für die Rolle des Cholesterinhaushalts im Bezug auf Neurodegeneration herangezogen werden kann. Die Fliegen dieser Mutante zeigen stark progressive, altersabhängige Degeneration von Neuronen, dabei unterlaufen diese Nervenzellen einen nekrotischenZelltod. Verantwortlich für diese Mutation ist die Insertion eines P-Elementes in einem Intron des Drosophila-g-5'-AMP-aktivierten Proteinkinase- (AMPK)-Gens. Die verschiedenen Spleißprodukte des loe Gens kodieren für die regulatorische g-Untereinheit des AMPK-Komplexes, der , aktiviert durch 5'AMP, energieintensive Prozesse negativ reguliert. Die Spleißform loeI ist durch die P-Element-Insertion betroffen, Anteile des P-Elementes werden in das loeI-Transkript hineingespleißt. Eine neuronale Expression von loeI im loe-Hintergrund führt zur Revertierung des loe-Phänotypes. Mit der Expression anderer Spleißformen kann dieser Effekt nicht erzielt werden. Das LOE I-Protein birgt in seinem N-Terminus eine Reihe möglicher Interaktionstellen mit anderen Proteinen, die den AMPK-Komplex in einen Kontext mit den Proteinen der APP (Amyloid Precursor Proteins) ?Familie stellen oder z. B. Interaktionen mit dem Cytoskelett herstellen können. Eine molekulare Interaktion mit NiPSNAP, einem Protein, dass vermutlich eine Rolle im Vesikelverkehr spielt, konnte nachgewiesen werden. Ein direktes humanes Homolog von LOE I ist nicht bekannt, wohlgleich es im Menschen drei AMPK-g-Untereinheiten gibt, von denen zwei ähnliche Funktionen übernehmen könnten wie LOE I. Die loe-Mutante interagiert genetisch mit der Mutante clb ? columbus, die einen Defekt im Gen der HMG-CoA-Reduktase trägt. Dieses Emzym ist das Schlüsselenzym der Cholesterinbiosynthese. Die Art der Interaktion belegt eine negative Regulierung der HMG-CoA-Reduktase durch die AMPK. So schwächt die clb-Mutation den neurodegenerativen loe-Phänotyp ab, eine Überexpression von clb verstärkt diesen. Eine Verminderung der Neurodegeneration kann auch mit Medikamenten erreicht werden: Statine, potente Hemmer der HMG-COA-Reduktase, reprimieren deutlich den loe-Phänotyp. In loe ist der Cholesterinester-Spiegel auf 40% abgesenkt. Eine weitere genetische Interaktion von loe konnte nachgewiesen werden: Die Mutante für das Drosophila-Homolog von APP (Appl) verstärkt den neurodegenerativen Phänotyp in loe stark, wogegen die Appl-Mutante selbst keine neurodegenerativen Defekte aufweist. Darüberhinaus zeigt die Doppelmutante Defekte, die keine der Einzelmutanten aufweist: Sterilität oder eine extrem kurze Lebensdauer von nur 3-4 Tagen. Diese Interaktion ließ sich auf molekularer Ebene charakterisieren. Die proteolytische Prozessierung von APPL durch Sekretasen ist in loe alteriert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die loe-Mutation die b-Sekretase aus Vertebraten (BACE) und eine bisher noch nicht beschriebene endogene Sekretase aus Drosophila negativ beeiflusst werden. Ein AMPK-Komplex mit LOE I als g-Untereinheit scheint über den Cholesterinester-Spiegel die Aktivität einer speziellen Untergruppe der Sekretasen zu beeinflussen. Die Missfunktion dieser Sekretasen ist ein kritischer Punkt in der Pathogenese der Alzheimer-Krankheit. Die loe-Mutation wirft neues Licht auf die bekannten Verbindungen zwischen Cholesterin-Stoffwechsel, Vesikelverkehr und Prozessierung von APP(L). Mit den großen Möglichkeiten, die die Drosophila-Genetik bietet, stellt diese neue Mutante ein weiteres Werkzeug zur Charakterisierung von Therapie-Ansätzen für die Alzheimer-Kankheit dar. Die vorliegende Arbeit belegt um ein weiteres Mal, dass Drosophila ein potentes Modellsystem zur Untersuchung humaner, neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen wie Chorea Huntington, Parkinson oder der Alzheimer Krankheit ist.
In operanten Konditionierungsexperimenten im Flugsimulator werden vier Parameter gefunden die Drosophila melanogaster aus visuellen Mustern extrahieren kann: Musterfläche, vertikale Position des Musterschwerpunkts, Verteiltheit und Musterausrichtung in horizontaler und vertikaler Richtung. Es ist nicht auszuschliessen, dass die Fliege weitere Musterparameter extrahieren kann. Spontane Musterpräferenzen und konditionierte Präferenzen zeigen unterschiedliche Zusammenhänge mit den Musterparametern. Aus räumlich getrennten Musterelementen zusammengesetzte Muster werden von der Fliege wie ein Gesamtmuster behandelt. Retinaler Transfer wird auch bei der Präsentation von Mustern an zwei verschiedenen vertikalen Trainingspositionen nicht beobachtet. Muster werden generalisiert, wenn die Schwerpunkte korrespondierender Muster zwischen Training und Test ungefähr an der gleichen Position liegen aber keine retinale Überlappung von Trainings- und Testmustern besteht. Retinotopie des Mustergedächtnisses liegt in diesem Fall nicht auf der Ebene der Bildpunkte, jedoch möglicherweise auf der Ebene des Parameters 'Musterschwerpunkt' vor. Fliegen können nicht trainiert werden bestimmte Musterpaare zu diskriminieren die sich nur durch die vertikale Position ihres Musterschwerpunktes unterscheiden. Dennoch bevorzugen sie beim Lerntest mit anderen Mustern mit korrespondierenden Schwerpunktspositionen die zuvor nicht bestrafte Schwerpunktsposition. Für die Modellierung der Extraktion von Musterschwerpunkt und Musterfläche wird ein einfaches künstliches neuronales Filter präsentiert, dessen Architektur auf einem Berechnungsalgorithmus für den gemeinsamen Schwerpunkt mehrerer Teilelemente beruht.
Most natural learning situations are of a complex nature and consist of a tight conjunction of the animal's behavior (B) with the perceived stimuli. According to the behavior of the animal in response to these stimuli, they are classified as being either biologically neutral (conditioned stimuli, CS) or important (unconditioned stimuli, US or reinforcer). A typical learning situation is thus identified by a three term contingency of B, CS and US. A functional characterization of the single associations during conditioning in such a three term contingency has so far hardly been possible. Therefore, the operational distinction between classical conditioning as a behavior-independent learning process (CS-US associations) and operant conditioning as essentially behavior-dependent learning (B-US associations) has proven very valuable. However, most learning experiments described so far have not been successful in fully separating operant from classical conditioning into single-association tasks. The Drosophila flight simulator in which the relevant behavior is a single motor variable (yaw torque), allows for the first time to completely separate the operant (B-US, B-CS) and the classical (CS-US) components of a complex learning situation and to examine their interactions. In this thesis the contributions of the single associations (CS-US, B-US and B-CS) to memory formation are studied. Moreover, for the first time a particularly prominent single association (CS-US) is characterized extensively in a three term contingency. A yoked control shows that classical (CS-US) pattern learning requires more training than operant pattern learning. Additionally, it can be demonstrated that an operantly trained stimulus can be successfully transferred from the behavior used during training to a new behavior in a subsequent test phase. This result shows unambiguously that during operant conditioning classical (CS-US) associations can be formed. In an extension to this insight, it emerges that such a classical association blocks the formation of an operant association, which would have been formed without the operant control of the learned stimuli. Instead the operant component seems to develop less markedly and is probably merged into a complex three-way association. This three-way association could either be implemented as a sequential B-CS-US or as a hierarchical (B-CS)-US association. The comparison of a simple classical (CS-US) with a composite operant (B, CS and US) learning situation and of a simple operant (B-US) with another composite operant (B, CS and US) learning situation, suggests a hierarchy of predictors of reinforcement. Operant behavior occurring during composite operant conditioning is hardly conditioned at all. The associability of classical stimuli that bear no relation to the behavior of the animal is of an intermediate value, as is operant behavior alone. Stimuli that are controlled by operant behavior accrue associative strength most easily. If several stimuli are available as potential predictors, again the question arises which CS-US associations are formed? A number of different studies in vertebrates yielded amazingly congruent results. These results inspired to examine and compare the properties of the CS-US association in a complex learning situation at the flight simulator with these vertebrate results. It is shown for the first time that Drosophila can learn compound stimuli and recall the individual components independently and in similar proportions. The attempt to obtain second-order conditioning with these stimuli, yielded a relatively small effect. In comparison with vertebrate data, blocking and sensory preconditioning experiments produced conforming as well as dissenting results. While no blocking could be found, a sound sensory preconditioning effect was obtained. Possible reasons for the failure to find blocking are discussed and further experiments are suggested. The sensory preconditioning effect found in this study is revealed using simultaneous stimulus presentation and depends on the amount of preconditioning. It is argued that this effect is a case of 'incidental learning', where two stimuli are associated without the need of reinforcement. Finally, the implications of the results obtained in this study for the general understanding of memory formation in complex learning situations are discussed.
Ein Weg, der von Rezeptor-Tyrosin-Kinasen benutzt wird um Signale auf "downstream" gelegene Effektormoleküle zu übertragen, erfolgt über Adaptorproteine, die Bindungsstellen für verschiedene Proteine zur Verfügung stellen. Das daughter of sevenless (dos) Gen wurde in einem Screen nach Downstream-Komponenten der Sevenless (Sev) Rezeptor-Tyrosin-Kinase gefunden. Dos besitzt eine N-terminale PH-Domäne und mehrere Tyrosinreste in Konsensussequenzen für SH2-Domänen Bindungsstellen von verschiedenen Proteinen. Die strukturellen Merkmale von Dos und Experimente, die zeigten, daß Tyrosine im Dos Protein nach der Aktivierung von Sev phosphoryliert werden, legen den Schluß nahe, daß Dos zur Familie der Multi-Adaptor-Proteine gehört. Zu dieser Familie werden die Insulin-Rezeptor-Substrat (IRS) Proteine, Gab1 und Gab2 gerechnet. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein monoklonaler Maus anti-Dos Antikörper etabliert. Das Epitop dieses Antikörpers liegt im Bereich der C-terminalen 416 Aminosäuren des Dos Proteins. Mittels Westernblot Analysen wurde für Dos ein Molekulargewicht von 115 kD ermittelt. Antikörperfärbungen von wildtypischen Augenimaginalscheiben dritter Larven zeigten, daß das Dos Protein in Zellen in und posterior der morphogenetischen Furche exprimiert wird und in diesen Zellen apikal lokalisiert ist. Zur Charakterisierung des homozygot letalen dosR31 Allels, wurde der genomische Bereich sequenziert und die erhaltenen Daten mit der cDNA Sequenz verglichen. Die so etablierte Aminosäuresequenz für das DosR31 Protein hat sechs Aminosäuresubstitutionen, die möglicherweise die Tertiärstruktur beeinflussen. Zusätzlich wurde ein Stopcodon in Position 463 der Aminosäuresequenz gefunden. Bei dosR31 handelt es sich um ein "loss of function" Allel, das nicht in der Lage ist, die normale Dos Funktion zu erfüllen. Um die funktionelle Rolle der potentiellen SH2-Domänen Bindungsstellen für die Dos Funktion in der Rezeptor-Tyrosin-Kinasen vermittelten Signaltransduktion zu untersuchen, wurden mutierte dos Transgene in Fliegen exprimiert. Die potentiellen Bindungsstellen für die SH2-Domänen des SH2/SH3 Adaptorproteins Shc, der PhospholipaseC-g (PLCg), der regulatorische Untereinheit der Phosphatidylinositol-3-Kinase (PI3Kinase) und der Corkscrew (Csw) Tyrosin Phosphatase wurden durch den Austausch des für die Bindung wichtigen Tyrosins gegen ein Phenylalanin mutiert. Die ektopische Expression der mutierten Konstrukte ohne Bindungsstellen für die Shc, PLCg und PI3Kinasen SH2-Domänen konnte in Abwesenheit von endogenem Dos die fehlende Dos Funktion während der Entwicklung vollständig ersetzen. Im Gegensatz dazu ist das Tyrosin 801 als nachgewiesene Bindungsstelle für Csw SH2-Domänen essentiell für die Funktion von Dos. Ektopische Expression von Transgene durch Hitzeschock kann zu phänotypischen Effekten führen, die nicht auf das Transgen zurückzuführen sind. Um dieses Problem zu umgehen wurde das endogene dos Enhancer/Promotor Element kloniert, damit die Funktion von mutierten Transgenen auch im endogenen Expressionsmuster untersucht werden konnte. Das klonierte genE-dos Minigen war in der Lage, den Verlust von endogenem Dos in dosR31 und dosP115 Tieren vollständig zu ersetzen und zeigte eine völlig wildtypische Expression in Augenimaginalscheiben. Zur Untersuchung, welche Rolle die mutierten SH2-Domänen Bindungsstellen bei der Dos Funktion in der Augenentwicklung spielen, wurde ein neues in vivo Testsystem basierend auf der Flp/FRT Flipase Rekombinase Technik etabliert. Dieses klonale Testsystem erlaubt die Expression mutierter Transgene unter der Kontrolle der dos Enhancer/Promotor Sequenzen in Klonen von Zellen, denen die endogene Dos Funktion fehlt. Die klonale Analyse der mutierten Konstrukte konnte zeigen, daß das Tyrosin 801, als Bindungsstelle für eine Csw SH2-Domäne, eine essentielle Rolle für die Dos Funktion spielt. Die Tyrosinreste in den potentiellen SH2-Domänen Bindungsstellen für Shc, PLCg und PI3Kinase spielen hingegen keine essentielle Rolle für die Dos Funktion bei der Augenentwicklung. Das etablierte klonale Testsystem kann allgemein zur Untersuchung der in vivo Funktion von potentiellen Protein-Protein Interaktionsregionen im Dos Protein bei der Augenentwicklung eingesetzt werden unabhängig von deren Erfordernis für andere Entwicklungsprozesse.
Different transgenes that can be expressed in neurons to kill or block them were compared. Tetanus neurotoxin blocked chemical synapses very efficiently. Synapses consisting of a chemical and an electrical component were blocked more reliably by expressing a human inwardly rectifying potassium channel. To gain temporal control over neuronal function, three genetic tools have been investigated. None of the systems is without drawbacks, however, the recombination induced tetanus neurotoxin expression is a promising approach. The knowledge gained from the comparative methodological study was used to investigate the role of neurons in sensory systems in processing different sensory informations. Receptor neurons sensitive for chemical or mechanical stimuli were correlated to specific olfactory behaviors or locomotor tasks. The main topic of this thesis is the much discussed question of which neurons are involved in motion processing in the visual system of flies. Neither L2 nor L4 neurons in the first visual neuropil are essential for motion-detection. The results indicate that maybe motion is detected by the network of amacrine cells (a). The vertical motion-sensitive VS cells in the lobula plate are not necessary for behavioral responses to vertical motion. This finding implies that the lack of VS cells in the structural mutant optomotor blind is not causally related to the altered responses to motion stimuli. Other abnormalities in optomotor blind are responsible for this behavioral phenotype. This work shows the potential of the described methods in studying information processing in the Drosophila brain. Groups of neurons were correlated to complex behavioral responses and theories about information processing were tested by behavioral experiments with transgenic flies. The refinement of the genetic tools to interfere with neuronal function will make the Drosophila brain an even better model to study information processing in nervous systems.