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Self-organization is a promising method within the framework of bottom-up architectures to generate nanostructures in an efficient way. The present work demonstrates that self- organization on the length scale of a few to several tens of nanometers can be achieved by a proper combination of a large (organic) molecule and a vicinal metal surface if the local bonding of the molecule on steps is significantly stronger than that on low-index surfaces. In this case thermal annealing may lead to large mass transport of the subjacent substrate atoms such that nanometer-wide and micrometer-long molecular stripes or other patterns are being formed on high-index planes. The formation of these patterns can be controlled by the initial surface orientation and adsorbate coverage. The patterns arrange self-organized in regular arrays by repulsive mechanical interactions over long distances accompanied by a significant enhancement of surface stress. We demonstrate this effect using the planar organic molecule PTCDA as adsorbate and Ag(10 8 7) and Ag(775)surfaces as substrate. The patterns are directly observed by STM, the formation of vicinal surfaces is monitored by highresolution electron diffraction, the microscopic surface morphology changes are followed by spectromicroscopy, and the macroscopic changes of surface stress are measured by a cantilever bending method. The in situ combination of these complementary techniques provides compelling evidence for elastic interaction and a significant stress contribution to long-range order and nanopattern formation.
Within the framework of this thesis the mechanisms of growth and reorganisation of surfaces within the first few layers were investigated that are the basis for the fabrication of high quality thin films and interfaces. Two model systems, PTCDA/Ag(111) and CdSe/ZnSe quantum dots (QD), were chosen to study such processes in detail and to demonstrate the power and improvements of the aberration corrected spectromicroscope SMART [1] simultaneously. The measurements benefit especially from the enhanced transmission of the microscope and also from its improved resolution. SMART, the first double–aberration corrected instrument of its kind [2], provided comprehensive methods (LEEM/PEEM, μ–LEED, μ–XPS) to study in–situ and in real time the surface reorganisation and to determine morphology, local structure and local chemical composition of the resulting thin film. Complementarily, a commercial AFM [3] was used ex–situ. XPEEM and μ–XPS measurements were made possible by attaching SMART to the high flux density beamline of the soft–X–ray source BESSY–II [4]. PTCDA/Ag(111) – Growth and structure of the first two layers Although PTCDA/Ag(111) is one of the most intensely studied model systems for the growth of organic semiconductor thin films, it still offers new insights into a complex growth behaviour. This study enlightens the temperature dependant influence of morphological features as small as monatomic Ag steps on the growth process of the first two layers. At low temperatures, single Ag steps act as diffusion barriers. But interdiffusion was observed already for the 2nd layer whereas domain boundaries in the 1st PTCDA–layer persist for crystallite growth in the 2nd layer. 1st layer islands are more compact and the more dendritic development of the 2nd layer indicates reduced interaction strength between 2nd and 1st layer. These findings were explained by a model consisting of structural and potential barriers. The second part of the PTCDA study reveals a variety of phases that appears only if at least two layers are deposited. Besides the six known rotational domains of the interface system PTCDA/Ag(111) [5], a further manifold of structures was discovered. It does not only show a surprising striped image contrast, but the 2nd layer also grows in an elongated way along these so–called ’ripples’. The latter show a rather large period and were found in a wide temperature range. Additionally the μ-LEED pattern of such a domain shows a new super–superstructure as well. This phase is explained by a structural model that introduces a rotated, more relaxed domain in the 2nd layer that does not exist in the first layer. Its structural parameters are similar to those of the bulk unitcells of PTCDA. The model is confirmed by the observation of two different rotational domains that grow on top of one single ’substrate’ domain in the 1st layer. The orientations of the ripple phases fit as well to the predictions of the model. The growth direction along the ripples corresponds to the short diagonal of the super–superstructure unitcell with diamond–like shape. CdSe/ZnSe – Inverse structuring by sublimation of an α-Te cap With the second model system the formation of CdSe quantum dots (QD) from strained epi-layers was investigated. In this case the structures do not form during deposition, but rather during sublimation of the so–called ‘ignition cap’. For these pilot experiments not only the process of QD formation itself was of interest, but also the portability of the preparation and the prevention of contaminations. It was found that the α-Se is well suited for capping and the last step of the QD preparation, the sublimation of the α-Te cap, needs a sufficiently high rate in rise of temperature. Subsequently the cap, the process of desorption and the final surface with the quantum structures were investigated in detail. The cap was deposited by the MBE-group in Würzburg as an amorphous Te layer but was found to contain a variety of structures. Holes, cracks, and micro–crystallites within an α-Te matrix were identified. Sublimation of the “ignition cap” was observed in real–time. Thus the discovered cap-structures could be correlated with the newly formed features as, e.g., QDs on the bare CdSe surface. Since CdSe/ZnSe QDs prefer to form in the neighbourhood of the Te μ–crystallites, Te was found to play a major role in their formation process. Different explanations as the impact of Te as a surfactant, an enhanced mobility of adatoms or as stressor nuclei are discussed. The spectromicroscopic characterisation of the CdSe surface with QDs revealed the crystallographic directions. An increased Cd signal of the film was found at positions of former holes. Several possibilities as segregation or surface termination are reviewed, that might explain this slight Cd variation. Therewith, an important step to a detailed understanding of the complex reorganisation process in coating systems could be achieved.
Lung cancer is the most common cancer worldwide and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in both men and women. Despite the development of novel therapeutic interventions, the 5-year survival rate for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients remains low, demonstrating the necessity for novel treatments. One strategy to improve translational research is the development of surrogate models reflecting somatic mutations identified in lung cancer patients as these impact treatment responses. With the advent of CRISPR-mediated genome editing, gene deletion as well as site-directed integration of point mutations enabled us to model human malignancies in more detail than ever before. Here, we report that by using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeting of Trp53 and KRas, we recapitulated the classic murine NSCLC model Trp53fl/fl:lsl-KRasG12D/wt. Developing tumors were indistinguishable from Trp53fl/fl:lsl-KRasG12D/wt-derived tumors with regard to morphology, marker expression, and transcriptional profiles. We demonstrate the applicability of CRISPR for tumor modeling in vivo and ameliorating the need to use conventional genetically engineered mouse models. Furthermore, tumor onset was not only achieved in constitutive Cas9 expression but also in wild-type animals via infection of lung epithelial cells with two discrete AAVs encoding different parts of the CRISPR machinery. While conventional mouse models require extensive husbandry to integrate new genetic features allowing for gene targeting, basic molecular methods suffice to inflict the desired genetic alterations in vivo. Utilizing the CRISPR toolbox, in vivo cancer research and modeling is rapidly evolving and enables researchers to swiftly develop new, clinically relevant surrogate models for translational research.