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Delayed natural killer (NK) cell reconstitution after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT) is associated with a higher risk of developing invasive aspergillosis. The interaction of NK cells with the human pathogen Aspergillus (A.) fumigatus is mediated by the fungal recognition receptor CD56, which is relocated to the fungal interface after contact. Blocking of CD56 signaling inhibits the fungal mediated chemokine secretion of MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and RANTES and reduces cell activation, indicating a functional role of CD56 in fungal recognition. We collected peripheral blood from recipients of an allograft at defined time points after alloSCT (day 60, 90, 120, 180). NK cells were isolated, directly challenged with live A. fumigatus germ tubes, and cell function was analyzed and compared to healthy age and gender-matched individuals. After alloSCT, NK cells displayed a higher percentage of CD56\(^{bright}\)CD16\(^{dim}\) cells throughout the time of blood collection. However, CD56 binding and relocalization to the fungal contact side were decreased. We were able to correlate this deficiency to the administration of corticosteroid therapy that further negatively influenced the secretion of MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and RANTES. As a consequence, the treatment of healthy NK cells ex vivo with corticosteroids abrogated chemokine secretion measured by multiplex immunoassay. Furthermore, we analyzed NK cells regarding their actin cytoskeleton by Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM) and flow cytometry and demonstrate an actin dysfunction of NK cells shown by reduced F-actin content after fungal co-cultivation early after alloSCT. This dysfunction remains until 180 days post-alloSCT, concluding that further actin-dependent cellular processes may be negatively influenced after alloSCT. To investigate the molecular pathomechansism, we compared CD56 receptor mobility on the plasma membrane of healthy and alloSCT primary NK cells by single-molecule tracking. The results were very robust and reproducible between tested conditions which point to a different molecular mechanism and emphasize the importance of proper CD56 mobility.
Invasive aspergillosis (IA) is an infectious disease caused by the fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus that mainly affects immunocompromised hosts. To investigate immune cell cross-talk during infection with A. fumigatus, we co-cultured natural killer (NK) cells and dendritic cells (DC) after stimulation with whole fungal structures, components of the fungal cell wall, fungal lysate or ligands for distinct fungal receptors. Both cell types showed activation after stimulation with fungal components and were able to transfer activation signals to the counterpart not stimulated cell type. Interestingly, DCs recognized a broader spectrum of fungal components and thereby initiated NK cell activation when those did not recognize fungal structures. These experiments highlighted the supportive function of DCs in NK cell activation. Furthermore, we focused on soluble DC mediated NK cell activation and showed that DCs stimulated with the TLR2/Dectin-1 ligand zymosan could maximally stimulate the expression of CD69 on NK cells. Thus, we investigated the influence of both receptors for zymosan, Dectin-1 and TLR2, which are highly expressed on DCs but show only minimal expression on NK cells. Specific focus was laid on the question whether Dectin-1 or TLR2 signaling in DCs is important for the secretion of soluble factors leading to NK cell activation. Our results show that Dectin-1 and TLR2 are negligible for NK cell activation. We conclude that besides Dectin-1 and TLR2 other receptors on DCs are able to compensate for the missing signal.
Aspergillus (A.) fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal mold inducing invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients. Although antifungal activity of human natural killer (NK) cells was shown in previous studies, the underlying cellular mechanisms and pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) are still unknown. Using flow cytometry we were able to show that the fluorescence positivity of the surface receptor CD56 significantly decreased upon fungal contact. To visualize the interaction site of NK cells and A. fumigatus we used SEM, CLSM and dSTORM techniques, which clearly demonstrated that NK cells directly interact with A. fumigatus via CD56 and that CD56 is re-organized and accumulated at this interaction site time-dependently. The inhibition of the cytoskeleton showed that the receptor re-organization was an active process dependent on actin re-arrangements. Furthermore, we could show that CD56 plays a role in the fungus mediated NK cell activation, since blocking of CD56 surface receptor reduced fungal mediated NK cell activation and reduced cytokine secretion. These results confirmed the direct interaction of NK cells and A. fumigatus, leading to the conclusion that CD56 is a pathogen recognition receptor. These findings give new insights into the functional role of CD56 in the pathogen recognition during the innate immune response.
Farnesol, produced by the polymorphic fungus Candida albicans, is the first quorum-sensing molecule discovered in eukaryotes. Its main function is control of C. albicans filamentation, a process closely linked to pathogenesis. In this study, we analyzed the effects of farnesol on innate immune cells known to be important for fungal clearance and protective immunity. Farnesol enhanced the expression of activation markers on monocytes (CD86 and HLA-DR) and neutrophils (CD66b and CD11b) and promoted oxidative burst and the release of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-\(\alpha\)] and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha [MIP-1 \(\alpha\)]). However, this activation did not result in enhanced fungal uptake or killing. Furthermore, the differentiation of monocytes to immature dendritic cells (iDC) was significantly affected by farnesol. Several markers important for maturation and antigen presentation like CD1a, CD83, CD86, and CD80 were significantly reduced in the presence of farnesol. Furthermore, farnesol modulated migrational behavior and cytokine release and impaired the ability of DC to induce T cell proliferation. Of major importance was the absence of interleukin 12 (IL-12) induction in iDC generated in the presence of farnesol. Transcriptome analyses revealed a farnesol-induced shift in effector molecule expression and a down-regulation of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor during monocytes to iDC differentiation. Taken together, our data unveil the ability of farnesol to act as a virulence factor of C. albicans by influencing innate immune cells to promote inflammation and mitigating the Th1 response, which is essential for fungal clearance.
No abstract avDendritic cells (DC) are the most important antigen presenting cells and play a pivotal role in host immunity to infectious agents by acting as a bridge between the innate and adaptive immune systems. Monocyte-derived immature DCs (iDC) were infected with viable resting conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus (Af293) for 12 hours at an MOI of 5; cells were sampled every three hours. RNA was extracted from both organisms at each time point and hybridised to microarrays. iDC cell death increased at 6 h in the presence of A. fumigatus which coincided with fungal germ tube emergence; .80% of conidia were associated with iDC. Over the time course A. fumigatus differentially regulated 210 genes, FunCat analysis indicated significant up-regulation of genes involved in fermentation, drug transport, pathogenesis and response to oxidative stress. Genes related to cytotoxicity were differentially regulated but the gliotoxin biosynthesis genes were down regulated over the time course, while Aspf1 was up-regulated at 9 h and 12 h. There was an up-regulation of genes in the subtelomeric regions of the genome as the interaction progressed. The genes up-regulated by iDC in the presence of A. fumigatus indicated that they were producing a pro-inflammatory response which was consistent with previous transcriptome studies of iDC interacting with A. fumigatus germ tubes. This study shows that A. fumigatus adapts to phagocytosis by iDCs by utilising genes that allow it to survive the interaction rather than just up-regulation of specific virulence genes.
Candida dubliniensis ist eine 1995 erstmals beschriebene pathogene Hefespezies mit enger phylogenetischer Verwandtschaft zu Candida albicans. Sie wird mittels routinemäßig angewendeter Verfahren nicht von C. albicans unterschieden, weil sie als einzige Spezies im Genus Candida neben C. albicans Chlamydosporen ausbilden kann. C. dubliniensis ist bisher vor allem aus dem Oropharynx HIV-positiver Patienten isoliert worden. PHR1 und PHR2 sind funktionell homologe, pH-abhängig exprimierte Gene von C. albicans, deren Produkte essentiell für die Verknüpfung von b-1,3- und b-1,6-Glukan in der Zellwand sind. Die Deletion jedes dieser Gene führt zu einem pH-abhängigen Phänotyp mit aberranter Morphogenese in vitro und reduzierter Virulenz im Tiermodell. In dieser Arbeit werden PHR homologe Gene im Genom von C. dubliniensis charakterisiert. CdPHR1 weist eine Homologie von 90,5 Prozent zu PHR1 und CdPHR2 eine Homologie von 91,7 Prozent zu PHR2 auf. Wie PHR1 wird auch CdPHR1 nur unter neutralen und alkalischen Bedingungen exprimiert, während sich CdPHR2 Transkript, wie das von PHR2, nur unter sauren Bedingungen nachweisen lässt. Die funktionelle Homologie von CdPHR1 zu PHR1 wird durch Komplementation des Phänotyps einer C. albicans phr1 Mutante mit CdPHR1 gezeigt. Dabei erweist sich der native Promoter von CdPHR1 als funktional in C. albicans. Im Modellorganismus Saccharomyces cerevisiae wird CdPHR1 unter Kontrolle seines nativen Promotors dagegen pH-unabhängig exprimiert. Auch die zusätzliche Einführung eines mutierten, dominant aktiven Allels von RIM101, das in C. albicans für die pH-abhängige Genexpression verantwortlich ist, hat darauf keinen Einfluss. In C. glabrata und Aspergillus nidulans findet sich keine Expression von CdPHR1. Basierend auf Sequenzunterschieden zwischen PHR1 und CdPHR1 wird ein PCR-Schnelltest zur Speziesunterscheidung entwickelt. Dieser wird in einer epidemiologischen Studie mit 133 chlamydosporenpositiven klinischen Isolaten evaluiert. 21 oropharyngeale Isolate von 14 HIV-positiven Patienten können so retrospektiv als C. dubliniensis klassifiziert werden, dies entspricht einer Prävalenz von C. dubliniensis in diesem Kollektiv von 30 Prozent. Die Ergebnisse der PCR werden durch Sequenzierung ribosomaler Gene (V3, ITS1, ITS2) bestätigt. Parallel werden phänotypische Tests zur Identifizierung von C. dubliniensis auf ihre diagnostische Validität getestet. Während sich die Chlamydosporenmorphologie der Isolate und die Koloniefärbung auf dem Farbindikatormedium CHROMagar Candida als unzulänglich für die Unterscheidung erweisen und das für C. dubliniensis beschriebene Wachstumsdefizit bei 45°C zwar sensitiv, nicht aber spezifisch für die Identifizierung dieser Spezies ist, korreliert die Koloniemorphologie auf Staib-Agar zu 100 Prozent mit den molekularen Daten. Alle C. dubliniensis Isolate werden in einem biochemischen Assay (Micronaut RC) untersucht, dabei zeigt der Test auf b-Glukosidase Aktivität hohes diskriminatorisches Potenzial. In Resistenztestungen zeigen sich die C. dubliniensis Isolate sensibler als die oropharyngealen C. albicans Isolate gegen gebräuchliche Antimykotika. In dieser Studie kann gezeigt werden, dass C. dubliniensis und C. albicans auf teilweise austauschbare Mechanismen zur Reaktion auf Alterationen des pH-Milieus verfügen. Die pH-abhängige Regulation zellwandassoziierter Gene ist dabei eng mit morphogenetischen Prozessen verbunden. Trotz dieser Ähnlichkeit ist C. dubliniensis nicht nur weniger virulent als C. albicans, sondern zeigt auch ein unterschiedliches epidemiologisches Spektrum, das durch eine Spezialisierung auf oropharyngeale Kolonisation und Infektion bei HIV-positiven Patienten gekennzeichnet ist. Um die Gründe für diese Unterschiede aufzeigen zu können, ist eine verlässliche Identifizierung von C. dubliniensis notwendig. Dazu stellen die präsentierten Daten einerseits einen schnellen und verlässlichen PCR Test, andererseits eine sorgfältige Evaluierung derzeit gebräuchlicher phänotypischer Verfahren vor. Phänotypisch und genotypisch exzellent charakterisierte Isolate beider Spezies stehen für weitere Untersuchungen zur Verfügung.
Candida auris was first described as a yeast pathogen in 2009. Since then, the species has emerged worldwide. In contrast to most other Candida spp., C. auris frequently exhibits multi-drug resistance and is readily transmitted in hospital settings. While most detections so far are from colonised patients, C. auris does cause superficial and life-threatening invasive infections. During management of the first documented C. auris transmission in a German hospital, experts from the National Reference Centers for Invasive Fungal Infections (NRZMyk) and the National Reference Center for Surveillance of Nosocomial Infections screened available literature and integrated available knowledge on infection prevention and C. auris epidemiology and biology to enable optimal containment. Relevant recommendations developed during this process are summarised in this guidance document, intended to assist in management of C. auris transmission and potential outbreak situations. Rapid and effective measures to contain C. auris spread require a multi-disciplinary approach that includes clinical specialists of the affected unit, nursing staff, hospital hygiene, diagnostic microbiology, cleaning staff, hospital management and experts in diagnostic mycology / fungal infections. Action should be initiated in a step-wise process and relevant interventions differ between management of singular C. auris colonised / infected patients and detection of potential C. auris transmission or nosocomial outbreaks.
Against the background of the current COVID-19 infection dynamics with its rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC), the immunity and the vaccine prevention of healthcare workers (HCWs) against SARS-CoV-2 continues to be of high importance. This observational cross-section study assesses factors influencing the level of anti-SARS-CoV-2-spike IgG after SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination. One thousand seven hundred and fifty HCWs were recruited meeting the following inclusion criteria: age ≥18 years, PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection convalescence and/or at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccination. anti-SARS-CoV-2-spike IgG titers were determined by SERION ELISA agile SARS-CoV-2 IgG. Mean anti-SARS-CoV-2-spike IgG levels increased significantly by number of COVID-19 vaccinations (92.2 BAU/ml for single, 140.9 BAU/ml for twice and 1144.3 BAU/ml for threefold vaccination). Hybrid COVID-19 immunized respondents (after infection and vaccination) had significantly higher antibody titers compared with convalescent only HCWs. Anti-SARS-CoV-2-spike IgG titers declined significantly with time after the second vaccination. Smoking and high age were associated with lower titers. Both recovered and vaccinated HCWs presented a predominantly good humoral immune response. Smoking and higher age limited the humoral SARS-CoV-2 immunity, adding to the risk of severe infections within this already health impaired collective.
Background
PCR testing is considered the gold standard for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis but its results are earliest available hours to days after testing. Rapid antigen tests represent a diagnostic tool enabling testing at the point of care. Rapid antigen tests have mostly been validated by the manufacturer or in controlled laboratory settings only. External validation at the point of care, particularly in general practice where the test is frequently used, is needed. Furthermore, it is unclear how well point of care tests are accepted by the practice staff.
Methods
In this prospective multicenter validation study in primary care, general practitioners included adult individuals presenting with symptoms suggesting COVID-19. Each patient was tested by the general practitioner, first with a nasopharyngeal swab for the point of care test (Roche SARS-CoV-2 Rapid Antigen Test) and then with a second swab for PCR testing. Using the RT-PCR result as a reference, we calculated specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value, with their 95% confidence intervals. General practitioners and medical assistants completed a survey to assess feasibility and usefulness of the point of care tests.
Results
In 40 practices in Würzburg, Germany, 1518 patients were recruited between 12/2020 and 06/2021. The point of care test achieved a sensitivity of 78.3% and a specificity of 99.5% compared to RT-PCR. With a prevalence of 9.5%, the positive predictive value was 93.9% and the negative predictive value was 97.8%. General practitioners rated the point of care test as a helpful tool to support diagnostics in patients with signs and symptoms suggestive for infection, particularly in situations where decision on further care is needed at short notice.
Conclusion
The point of care test used in this study showed a sensitivity below the manufacturer’s specification (Sensitivity 96.25%) in the practice but high values for specificity and high positive predictive value and negative predictive value. Although widely accepted in the practice, measures for further patient management require a sensitive interpretation of the point of care test results.
Fungal eye infections can lead to loss of vision and blindness. The disease is most prevalent in the tropics, although case numbers in moderate climates are increasing as well. This study aimed to determine the dominating filamentous fungi causing eye infections in Germany and their antifungal susceptibility profiles in order to improve treatment, including cases with unidentified pathogenic fungi. As such, we studied all filamentous fungi isolated from the eye or associated materials that were sent to the NRZMyk between 2014 and 2020. All strains were molecularly identified and antifungal susceptibility testing according to the EUCAST protocol was performed for common species. In total, 242 strains of 66 species were received. Fusarium was the dominating genus, followed by Aspergillus, Purpureocillium, Alternaria, and Scedosporium. The most prevalent species in eye samples were Fusarium petroliphilum, F. keratoplasticum, and F. solani of the Fusarium solani species complex. The spectrum of species comprises less susceptible taxa for amphotericin B, natamycin, and azoles, including voriconazole. Natamycin is effective for most species but not for Aspergillus flavus or Purpureocillium spp. Some strains of F. solani show MICs higher than 16 mg/L. Our data underline the importance of species identification for correct treatment.