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Maintaining the integrity of the cuticular transpiration barrier even at elevated temperatures is of vital importance especially for hot-desert plants. Currently, the temperature dependence of the leaf cuticular water permeability and its relationship with the chemistry of the cuticles are not known for a single desert plant. This study investigates whether (i) the cuticular permeability of a desert plant is lower than that of species from non-desert habitats, (ii) the temperature-dependent increase of permeability is less pronounced than in those species and (iii) whether the susceptibility of the cuticular permeability barrier to high temperatures is related to the amounts or properties of the cutin or the cuticular waxes. We test these questions with Rhazya stricta using the minimum leaf water vapour conductance (gmin) as a proxy for cuticular water permeability. gmin of R. stricta (5.41 × 10\(^{-5}\) m s\(^{-1}\) at 25 °C) is in the upper range of all existing data for woody species from various non-desert habitats. At the same time, in R. stricta, the effect of temperature (15-50 °C) on gmin (2.4-fold) is lower than in all other species (up to 12-fold). Rhazya stricta is also special since the temperature dependence of gmin does not become steeper above a certain transition temperature. For identifying the chemical and physical foundation of this phenomenon, the amounts and the compositions of cuticular waxes and cutin were determined. The leaf cuticular wax (251.4 μg cm\(^{-2}\)) is mainly composed of pentacyclic triterpenoids (85.2% of total wax) while long-chain aliphatics contribute only 3.4%. In comparison with many other species, the triterpenoid-to-cutin ratio of R. stricta (0.63) is high. We propose that the triterpenoids deposited within the cutin matrix restrict the thermal expansion of the polymer and, thus, prevent thermal damage to the highly ordered aliphatic wax barrier even at high temperatures.

Oxylipine sind Signalmoleküle, die durch enzymatische Oxidation oder durch Autoxidation von mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren entstehen. Sie akkumulieren während einer Vielzahl von biotischen und abiotischen Stressen und spielen eine bedeutende Rolle bei der Abwehr verschiedener Stressoren. In vielen physiologischen Entwicklungsprozessen sind Oxylipine ebenfalls wichtig. Eine bisher wenig erforschte Untergruppe dieser Oxylipine bilden reaktive elektrophile Spezies, die sog. RES-Oxylipine. Hierzu gehören unter anderem der Jasmonsäure-Vorläufer 12 Oxophytodiensäure (OPDA), aber auch (E)-2-Hexenal oder Phytoprostan A1 (PPA1). Diese Substanzen sind aufgrund einer α,β ungesättigten Carbonylgruppe elektrophil und damit chemisch reaktiv. Diese Reaktivität wird als Grund für ihre biologische Aktivität angesehen: RES-Oxylipine sind Induktoren einer Reihe von Genen. Allerdings ist bisher wenig über den Signalweg sowie die Funktionen der RES-Oxylipine in Arabidopsis thaliana bekannt. Fast die Hälfte (40 %) aller durch OPDA-induzierten Gene in A. thaliana sind abhängig von TGA-Transkriptionsfaktoren, jedoch werden OPDA-responsive Hitzeschockgene (z.B. Hitzeschockproteine) unabhängig von TGA-Transkriptionsfaktoren induziert. Außerdem gibt es Hinweise auf eine Akkumulation des RES-Oxylipins OPDA, aber auch des non-RES-Oxylipins Jasmonsäure (JA) durch eine Behandlung mit 38° C in A. thaliana. Eine exogene Applikation von JA bewirkt jedoch, im Gegensatz zu OPDA, keine Genexpression von Hitzeschockgenen in Arabidopsis. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Funktion der RES-Oxylipine OPDA und Prostaglandin A1 (PGA1, ein Analogon zu PPA1) während der Hitzeschockantwort in Arabidopsis thaliana, sowie die TGA-unabhängige Signaltransduktion der Hitzeschockgene, aufzuklären. Durch einen Vergleich zweier bereits veröffentlichter Transkriptomdaten in silico konnte die Überschneidung des Hitze-induzierten- (1 h, 37 °C) und des OPDA-induzierten-Transkriptoms (4 h, 75 µM) genau analysiert werden. Es werden 30 Gene sowohl von OPDA als auch durch 37 °C mehr als dreifach hochreguliert. Dieses Ergebnis konnte durch realtime qPCR vier repräsentativer Gene (HSP101, HSP26.5, DREB2A, HSFA2) bestätigt werden. Allerdings zeigten sich deutliche Unterschiede in der Stärke und Kinetik der Induktion: Hitze (37 °C) hat einen sehr viel stärkeren Einfluss auf die Hochregulation der Genexpression als die getesteten RES-Oxylipine OPDA und PGA1 (unter 10 % der Induktion durch 37 °C, Ausnahme DREB2A). Zudem resultiert eine Hitzebehandlung in einer schnellen und transienten Genexpression, das Maximum ist nach 1 bis 2 h erreicht während die Addition von RES-Oxylipinen eine langsamere Induktion der Genexpression bewirkt (Maximum nach 4 bis 6 h). Eine Genexpressionsanalyse mit verschiedenen Signaltransduktionsmutanten half bei der Aufklärung möglicher Signaltransduktionskomponenten der RES-Oxylipine. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass der putative OPDA-Rezeptor Cyclophilin 20-3 sowie sein Interaktionspartner, das Protein Serin-Acetyltransferase 1, keine Bedeutung in der Regulation von Hitzeschockgenen durch RES-Oxylipine haben. Die Hitze-Masterregulatoren HSFA1 a,b,d (und e) jedoch sind für die Induktion der Hitzeschockgene HSP101, HSP26.5 und HSFA2 durch RES-Oxylipine essentiell und für DREB2A zumindest teilweise notwendig. Dennoch spielt der durch Hitze induzierbare Transkriptionsfaktor HSFA2 in der Signaltransduktion von RES-Oxylipinen (bezüglich der Hitzeschockgeninduktion) keine Rolle. Durch ein Screening strukturell verschiedener RES hinsichtlich ihrer Induktion von HSP101 konnte geklärt werden, dass nicht die Anwesenheit einer α,β ungesättigten Carbonylgruppe, sondern vielmehr die Eigenschaft der Elektrophilie für die Induktion des HSP101 verantwortlich ist. Auch das RES Sulforaphan vermittelt, wie die RES-Oxylipine OPDA und PGA1, die Induktion der Hitzeschockgene über die HSFA1-Transkritionsfaktoren. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag in der Quantifizierung der endogenen Oxylipine in zehn Tage alten Arabidopsis-Keimligen nach einer Hitzebehandlung unter Kurztag-Lichtbedingungen. Weder während eines kurzzeitigen Hitzestresses (bis zu 8 h) noch während einer längerfristigen Hitzebehandlung (bis zu 7 Tage) steigt der Gehalt des RES Oxylipins OPDA signifikant an. Das non-RES-Oxylipin Jasmonsäure hingegen akkumuliert transient (Maximum 2 h nach Beginn eines Hitzestresses) und signifikant, allerdings ist dieser Anstieg in seiner Stärke (13fach) nicht vergleichbar mit einer Akkumulation beispielsweise nach Verwundung (hier ist ein 1000facher Anstieg möglich). In weiteren Experimenten wurde eine mögliche Korrelation der endogenen Oxylipin-Akkumulation (verursacht durch Verwundung oder osmotischen Stress) mit der Genexpression von Hitzeschockgenen untersucht. …

The relationship between asparagine metabolism and protein concentration was investigated in soybean seed. Phenotyping of a population of recombinant inbred lines adapted to Illinois confirmed a positive correlation between free asparagine levels in developing seeds and protein concentration at maturity. Analysis of a second population of recombinant inbred lines adapted to Ontario associated the elevated free asparagine trait with two of four quantitative trait loci determining population variation for protein concentration, including a major one on chromosome 20 (linkage group I) which has been reported in multiple populations. In the seed coat, levels of asparagine synthetase were high at 50 mg and progressively declined until 150 mg seed weight, suggesting that nitrogenous assimilates are pre-conditioned at early developmental stages to enable a high concentration of asparagine in the embryo. The levels of asparaginase B1 showed an opposite pattern, being low at 50 mg and progressively increased until 150 mg, coinciding with an active phase of storage reserve accumulation. In a pair of genetically related cultivars, ∼2-fold higher levels of asparaginase B1 protein and activity in seed coat, were associated with high protein concentration, reflecting enhanced flux of nitrogen. Transcript expression analyses attributed this difference to a specific asparaginase gene, ASPGB1a. These results contribute to our understanding of the processes determining protein concentration in soybean seed.

Plant communities in the European Alps are assumed to be highly affected by climate change, as the temperature rise in this region is above the global average. It is predicted that higher temperatures will lead to advanced snowmelt dates and that the number of extreme weather events will increase. The aims of this study were to determine the impacts of extreme climatic events on flower phenology and to assess whether those impacts differed between lower and higher altitudes. In 2010, an experiment simulating advanced and delayed snowmelt as well as a drought event was conducted along an altitudinal transect approximately every 250 m (600–2000 m above sea level) in the Berchtesgaden National Park, Germany. The study showed that flower phenology was strongly affected by altitude; however, there were few effects of the manipulative treatments on flowering. The effects of advanced snowmelt were significantly greater at higher than at lower sites, but no significant difference was found between both altitudinal bands for the other treatments. The response of flower phenology to temperature declined through the season and the length of flowering duration was not significantly influenced by treatments. The stronger effect of advanced snowmelt at higher altitudes may be a response to differences in treatment intensity across the gradient. Consequently, shifts in the date of snowmelt due to global warming may affect species more at higher than at lower altitudes, as changes may be more pronounced at higher altitudes. These data indicate a rather low risk of drought events on flowering phenology in the Bavarian Alps.

Cuticles cover all above-ground primary plant organs and are lipoid in nature consisting of a cutin matrix with cuticular waxes embedded within or deposited on its surface. The foremost function of the plant cuticle is the limitation of transpirational water loss into the surrounding atmosphere. Transpiration of water vapour from plants differs between stomatal and cuticular transpiration. Stomatal closure minimises the stomatal water loss and the remaining, much lower water transpiration occurs through the plant cuticle. Temperature influence on the transpiration barrier properties of intact leaves is not yet known, despite the importance of the cuticular transpiration especially under drought and heat conditions. The present study focuses on the temperature-dependent minimum water permeability of whole leaves, in comparison to the temperature effect on the cuticular permeance of isolated, astomatous cuticles (Chapter I - III). The minimum water permeability was determined gravimetrically from leaf drying curves and represents the cuticular water permeability of intact, stomatous leaves under conditions of complete stomatal closure. The temperature effect on the transpiration barrier of the desert plant Rhazya stricta and the Mediterranean sclerophyll Nerium oleander exposed a continuous increase of minimum water permeabilities with an increase in temperature. In contrast to other published studies, no abrupt and steep increase of the water permeability at high temperatures was detected. This steep increase indicates structural changes of the barrier properties of isolated cuticular membranes with a drastic decrease of efficiency. A stabilising impact of the cell wall on the plant cuticle of intact leaves was proposed. This steadying effect was confirmed with different experimental approaches measuring the cuticular water permeability of Prunus laurocerasus intact leaves. Physiological analysis of water transport on isolated, astomatous leaf cuticles indicated a drastic decline of the barrier properties at elevated temperatures for Prunus laurocerasus but not for Nerium oleander. Cuticular components were quantitatively and qualitatively analysed by gas chromatography with a flame ionisation detector and a mass spectrometric detector, respectively. A high accumulation of pentacyclic triterpenoids as cuticular wax components in relation to the cutin monomer coverage was detected for Nerium oleander and for Rhazya stricta leaves, too. Accordingly, reinforcing of the cutin matrix by triterpenoids was proposed to improve the mechanical strength and to reduce the extensibility of plant cuticles. Thus, structural changes of the cuticular barrier properties were potentially suppressed at elevated temperatures. The function of the cuticular wax amount and/or wax composition and its relation with the cuticular water permeability remains to be elucidated. In the second part of this work the cuticular wax quantity and quality as well as its impact on the transpiration barrier properties was analysed in order to deduce a potential relation between chemistry and function of plant cuticles (Chapter IV - V). Chemical analyses of the cuticular wax components of a wide range of plant species, including one tropical (Vanilla planifolia), temperate (Juglans regia, Plantago lanceolata), Mediterranean (Nerium oleander, Olea europaea) and one desert (Rhazya stricta) plant species, were conducted. The cuticular wax compositions of nine characteristic plant species from xeric limestone sites naturally located in Franconia (Southern Germany) were determined for the first time. The corresponding minimum or cuticular water permeabilities of both stomatous and astomatous leaf surfaces were measured to detect a potential relationship between the cuticular wax amount, wax composition and the cuticular barrier properties. It was demonstrated that abundant cuticular wax amounts did not constitute more efficient transpiration barriers. However, 55% of the cuticular barrier function can be attributed to the very-long-chain aliphatic wax coverages. These new findings provide evidence that the acyclic wax constituents play a pivotal role establishing efficient transpiration barriers. Additionally, these findings strengthen the hypothesis that cyclic components, such as pentacyclic triterpenoids, do not hinder the water diffusion through plant cuticles as effectively as acyclic constituents. For the first time a relationship between the cuticular wax composition and the transpiration barrier properties of a wide range of plant species proved insights into the potential relation between chemistry and function of plant cuticles.